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4*
.^ '
•• •• *
k ■ 'V,-.-'A
NINEVEH
LONDON
fillNTED BY SPOTTISWOODE AND CO.
NEW-STR2ET S(^UARE
Nineveh and its Remains
A NARRATIVE
OF
AN EXPEDITION TO ASSYRIA
During the Years 1845, 1846, & 1847
BY AUSTEN HENRY LA YARD m.p. d.c.l.
^biibgeb bj2 i^t ^ut^or from ^ts larger VSioxh
lyiTH NUMEROUS WOODCUTS
LONDON
JOHN MURRAY, ALBEMARLE STREET
1867
The right of translation is reserved
izo3. j: . joS.
PREFACE
TO
THE PRESENT EDITION.
This new edition of the Abridgment of * Nineveh and its
Remains ' has been carefully revised by the Author. Subse-
quent discoveries amongst the ruins of Nineveh, and the
progress made in the interpretation of the cuneifom inscrip-
tions, have enabled him to add to the text, and have led him
to modify some of the views which were expressed in his
original work.
For the convenience of his readers he has added to the
account of his visit to the Yezidis, or Devil-worshippers,
originally published in * Nineveh and its Remains,' the nar-
rative of subsequent visits to that curious sect, contained in
his work entitled * Nineveh and Babylon/ He has thus
brought together all the information which he has been able
to collect concerning them.
Ocfoder, 1867.
PREFACE
TO
THE FIRST EDITION.
The interest felt in the discoveries on the site of Nineveh
having been so general, it was suggested to me that an abridg-
ment of my work on * Nineveh and its Remains,' published
in a cheap and popular form, would be acceptable to the
public. I had already commenced such an abridgment, when
I was called away on a second expedition into Assyria, which
left me no leisure for literary occupations.
On my return to England, I found that several inaccurate
and incomplete accounts of my first researches had already
been published. I determined, therefore, to complete with-
out delay the abridged work, which is now presented to the
public
In this abridgment I have omitted the second part of the
original work, introducing the principal Biblical and historical
illustrations into the narrative, which has thus, I hope, been
rendered more useful and complete.
As recent discoveries, and the contents of the inscriptions,
as far as they have been satisfactorily decyphered, have con-
firmed nearly all the opinions expressed in the original work,
no changes on any material points have been introduced into
viii PREFACE TO THE FIRST EDITION.
this abridgment I am still inclined to believe that all the
ruins explored represent the site of ancient Nineveh, and
whilst still assigning the later monuments to the kings men-
tioned in Scripture, Shalmanezer, Sennacherib, and Esar-
haddon, I am convinced that a considerable period elapsed
between their foundation and the erection of the older
palaces of Nimroud. The results of the attempts to decypher
the inscriptions are still too uncertain to authorise the use of
any actual names for the earlier kings mentioned in them.
September, 185 1.
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER I,
First journey m Assyria — Its ruins — Kouyunjik, Nimroud^ and
Kalah Sherghat — M. Botta's discoveries — Khorsabad — Return to
Mosul Page I
CHAPTER IT,
Mohammed Pasha — His cruelties — The state of the country — Start
for Nimroud — An Arab family — Commence excavations — Dis-
covery of a chamber — of inscriptions — of ivory ornaments — Return
to Mosid — Conduct of the Pasha — Excavations commenced amongst
various ruins — Return to Nimroud — Further discoveries — Sdami-
yah — Discovery of sculptures — Description of bas-rdiefs — Inter-
rupted by the Pasha — Further discovery of sculptures — Deposition
of the Pasha — Departure for BagJidad 12
CHAPTER III
Return to Mosul — Ismail Pasha — Change in the state of the country
— Return to Nimroud — The ruins in spring — Excavations re-
sumed — Further discoveries — New interruptions — Sheikh Abd-ur-
rahman and the Abou-Salman Arabs — Fresh bas-rdiefs in the
north-west corner — Discovery of the principal palace — Entire bas-
rdiefs — Discovery of the colossal lions — Surprise of the Arabs —
Sensation at Mosul, and conduct of the Pasha and Cadi — Excava-
tions stopped — Further discoveries — Description of the human-
headed lions — Reflections on their antiquity and object — The Jebour
Arabs — Their Sfieikhs — Nimroud in March-r-Description of the
plain at sunset — The tunnel of Negoub — An Assyrian inscription 35
CONTENTS,
CHAPTER IV.
Preparations for a journey to Al Hather — Gathering of the caravan
—Leave Mosul— The desert— Flocks of camels— The Haddedem
Arabs — An Arab repast— An encampment— An Arab tribe moving
— The tents of Sofuk— Description of , the Shammar Sheikh — His
history — SofuHs harem and wives — His mare — Ride to Al Hather
— ArcLb guides — The ruins of Al Hather — Return to Mosul —
Murder of Nefris, and of Sofuk Page 6 1
CHAPTER V,
Discovery of small objects — Pavement of the chambers — An Arab
feast — Arrival ofTahyar Pasha — Excavations continued — The
summer at Nimroud — A whirlwind — Further discoveries of bas-
reliefs — Description of the sculptures — Painted plaster — Receipt of
vizirial letter — Excavations at Kouyunjik — Fresh discoveries at
Nimroud — Surprise of the Arabs — First collection of sculptures
sent to England — Visit from Tahyar Pasha — Speculations of the
Turks on the sculptures — Remove to Mosul — Discovery of a build-
ing in a mound near Kouyunjik — New chambers opened at Nim-
roud 79
CHAPTER VI.
Departure for the Tiyari maintains — Khorsabad — Sheikh Adi —
A Kurdish encampment — A Chaldcean village — Amadiyah — A
Turkish governor — Albanian irregulars — An Albanian chief—
The Valley of Berwari — Chaldcean villages — A Kurdish Bey —
Asheetha in
CHAPTER VII
Asheetha — A Nestor ian house — The massacre — Zaweetha — Nestorian
priests — Murghi — Lizan — Scene of the massacre — A Tiyari bridge
— Raola— The house of the Melek—The district of Tkhoma—
Alarm of the inhabitants — Church service — Tkhoma Gowaia — A
Kurdish chief— Pass into Baz — Ergub — Return to Tkhoma— Be-
Alatha — Roads of Tiyari — Chonba — Murder of Melek Ismail
— Return to Asheetha — Kasha Auraham — A copper mine —
Challek — Ourmdi — A Subashi — A Kurdish saint — Malthayiah —
Sculptures — Alkosh — Tomb of the prophet Nahum — Rabhan
Hormuzd — Tdkef and its Christian inhabitants — Return to
Mosul — Second massacre in the Nestorian mountains — Capture
and exile of Beder KJian Bey 129
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER VIII.
Invitation to the feast of the Yezidis — Departure from Mosul— Baadri
— Hussein Bey^ the Ycddi chief— The birth of his son — History
of the Yezidis— Ride to the tomb of Sheikh Adi—Shdkh Nasr—
Description of the tomb — Arrival of Pilgrims — An incident —
Sheikh Shemsy or the Sun — Votive lamps — Celebration of rites —
Yezidi music — The doctrines and religious observances of the sect —
The Evil principle — The probaMe origin of their rites — Their
orders of priesthood — Their language and books — Return to Mosul
— Departure for the Sinjar — Abou Maria — Tel Afer — Mirkan —
Escape of the Yezidis — The village of Sinjar — Wild asses .Page 176
CHAPTER IX.
Excavations undertaken by the British Museum — Choice of work-
men — Dwelling-houses built at Nimroud — Discovery ofbas-rdiefs
— Of armour and helmets — Of vases — Of new chambers — Of the
obdisk — Discoveries in the south-west corner of the mound —
Winged lions — Crouching sphinxes — Discovery of tombs in the
south-east corner of the mound — Arab workmen — Mode of irriga-
tion-^Customs of the Arabs — Facility of divorce — Arab women —
The Tiyari or Chaldceans — A raft plundered — Seizure of an Arab
Sheikh — Departure of sculptures for Busrah 225
CHAPTER X.
Death of Tahyar Pasha — Discoveries in the north-west palace —
Ivory ornaments and cartouches with hieroglyphics — Painted
chambers — Pottery — Discovery of upper chambers — Paintings on
the walls — Pavement slabs — Discoveries in the centre of the mound
— Tombs containing vases and ornaments — Sculptures — Further
discoveries in the south-west edifice — Sculptures — Discovery of more
tombs in the south-east corner — Of chambers beneath them — Of a
vaulted room 265
CHAPTER Xil.
Excavations at Kalah Sherghat — Departure for the ruins — The bitu-
men pits — Abd^rubbou — My reception — Discovery of a sitting figure
— Arab encampment — Arab life — Excavations in the mound —
Discovery of tombs— Return to Nimroud . . . ,291
xii CONTENTS.
CHAPTER XII.
Artificial irrigation of Assyria — Want of rain — Preparations for the
removal of a winged bull and lion — The cart — Lowering the winged
bull — Its removal from the ruins — Excitement of the Arabs — Re-
moval of the lion — Rafts for the transport of the sculptures to
Busrah — Embarkcttion of the lion and bull — General description
oftheruins Page 304
CHAPTER XIII
Departure for Nimroud — Excavations at Koiiyunjik — Discovery of a
palace — Bas-reliefs — General description of the sculptures — Ex-
cavations carried on by Mr. Ross — His discoveries — A sculptured
slab and sarcophagus — Preparations for my return to Constanti-
nople — Leave Mosul 334
LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS.
«
PAGB
Lowering the Bull Frontispiece
Awad, Sheikh of the Jehesh 17
Plan I. South-west Ruin, Nimroud 22
Assyrian Warriors in a Chariot, from a Bas-relief discovered at
Nimroud , 27
Plan II. North-west Palace, Nimroud 42
Vessel or Basket carried by Winged Figures .... 43
Winged Figure. (N.W. Palace, Nimroud) .... 44
Sacred Tree. (N.W. Palace, Nimroud) 45
Assyrian Ornament. (Nimroud) 46
Assyrian Ornament (Kouyunjik) 46
Early Greek Honeysuckle Ornament 46
Later Greek Honeysuckle Ornament 46
Flower of the Tulip or Lily. (Kouyunjik) .... 46
Eagle-headed Figure. (N.W. Palace, Nimroud) ... 47
Discovery of the Gigantic Head 49
An Entrance to the Great Hall of the North-west Palace. (Nim-
roud) $2
Human-headed Lion. (N.W. Palace, Nimroud) • • • 53
The Canal of N^oub and Map of Country around Nimroud . 58
Arab Tents 67
Handles of Three Daggers carried in the Girdle. (N.W. Palace,
Nimroud) 87
Winged Human-headed Bull. (N.W. Palace, Nimroud) . . 88
Bronze Lion 90
Egjrptian weighing Rings of Metal with Weights in the Form of a
seated Lion 90
Battering Ram with movable Tower containing Warriors. (N.W.
Palace, Nimroud) 92
Sacred Emblems suspended round the Neck of the Kmg. (N.W.
Palace, Nimroud) 98
Ornament oa the Dress of Eunuchs 100
Ornament on the Robe of King 100
Ornament on the Robe of Winged Figure loi
xi V LIST OF ILL USTRA TIONS.
PACB
Head-dress of the King. (N.W. Palace, Nimroud) . . . 102
The King's Sandal. (N.W. Palace, Nimroud) . . . .102
The Kmg's Footstool. (N.W. Palace, Nimroud) . . .102
End of a Sword Sheath. (N.W. Palace, Nimroud) . . .103
The King's Throne. (N.W. Palace, Nimroud) . . . .103
Altar, or Tripod. (From Khorsabad) 113
Summer Sleeping-place in the Hills 1 14
Kurdish Women at a Spring 116
A Nestorian House in the District of Tiyari . . . • 13^
A Wicker Bridge across the Zab, near Lizan . . , .143
Assyrian Deity. On a Rock Tablet at Malthaiyah . . .169
Assyrian Chairs 170
Hussein Bey, the Chief of the Yezidis, and his Brother . .178
Valley and Tomb of Sheikh Adi 185
Yezidi Cawals . 192
Yezidi Women at Sheikh Adi 194
The Melek Taous, or Copper Bird of the Yezidis . . .196
Sheikh Nasr, High Priest of the Yezidis 208
Yezidi Dance at Sheikh Adi . . . . . . .212
Tel Afer 218
The Author's House at Nimroud 227
Emblem of the Deity. (N.W. Palace, Nhnroud) . . . 230
Emblem of the Deity. (N.W. Palace, Nimroud) . . .231
A Table. (N.W. Palace, Nimroud) 232
Tables, or Stands for Jars. (N.W. Palace, Nimroud) . . 232
Eunuch Warrior in Battle. (N.W. Palace, Nimroud) . . 233
Mounted Archer drawing the Bow, whilst a Second Horseman
guides his Horse. (N.W. Palace, Nimroud) . . . 234
A Boat carrying a Chariot, and Men swimming on inflated Skins.
(N.W. Palace, Nimroud) 239
Flying Warrior turning back to discharge an Arrow. (N.W.
Palace, Nimroud) 240
Inscription on Fragment of Pottery from Nimroud . . ..241
Glass and Alabaster Vases bearing the Name of S argon. (From
Nimroud) \ . 242
The Obelisk in Black Marble, discovered at Nimroud . . 244
Elephant and Monkeys. (Obelisk, Nimroud) .... 245
Bactrian or Two-humped Camels. (Obelisk, Nimroud) . . 246
The Bull, the Rhinoceros, and an Antelope. (Obelisk, Nimroud) 246
Baboon and Ape. (Obelisk, Nimroud) 247
Captive, supposed to be a Jewish Chief, before Assyrian King . 248
Captives, supposed to be Jews bearing Tribute .... 248
Figures on Lions. (S.W. Palace, Nimroud) .... 249
Figures on Lions. (S.W. Palace, Nimroud) .... 250
Sphinx from S.W. Palace. (Nimroud) 251
UST OF ILLUSTRATIONS,
PAGE
Nestorian and Arab Workmen, with Jar discovered at NimrcJud . 253
The King. (N.W. Palace, Nimroud) 267
Figures and Cartouche with Hieroglyphics, on an Ivory Panel.
(N.W. Palace, Nimroud) 269
Plan III. Upper Chambers on the West Side of the Mound.
(Nimroud) 272
Pottery found in the Tombs above the Ruins at Nimroud . . 275
Helmets. (Centre Palace, Nimroud) 276
Assyrian Horsemen pursuing a Man, probably an Arab, on a
Camel. (Centre Palace, Nimroud) 277
Warriors before a besi^ed City. A Battering-ram drawn up to
the Walls, and Captives impaled. (Centre Palace, Nimroud) . 279
Assyrian Warriors fighting with the Enemy. An Eagle is carrying
away the Entrails of the Slain. (Centre Palace, Nimroud) . 280
Captive Women in a Cart drawn by Oxen. (Centre Palace, Nim-
roud) 281
Walled City standing on a River or on the Sea. (Centre Palace,
Nimroud) 282
Enemy asking Quarter of Assyrian Horsemen. (S.W. Palace,
Nimroud) 284
Part of a Bas-relief, showing a Pulley, and a Warrior cutting a
Bucket from a Rope 285
Idols carried in procession by Assyrian Warriors. (S.W. Ruins,
Nimroud) 286
Sitting Figure in Basalt from Kalah Sherghat .... 295
Assyrian Warriors hunting a Lion. (N.W. Palace, Nimroud) . 311
Procession of the Bull beneath the Mound of Nimroud . .319
Emblem of the Deity. (N.W. Palace, Nimroud) . , . 332
A House. (Kouyimjik) 339
The Interior of a Tent. (Kouyunjik) 339
Head of Winged Bull. (Khorsabad and Kouyunjik) . . . 345
Head of Winged Monster. (Persepolis) 345
Plan IV. Chambers excavated at Kouyunjik in 1847 . . . 347
Warrior with Shield. (Kouyunjik) 348
Head-dress of the King. (Kouyunjik) . . . \ . 349
Manacles for the Feet. (Khorsabad and Kouyunjik) . . . 350
Manacles for the Hands. (Khorsabad and Kouyunjik) . . 350
A Galley. (Kouyunjik) 3^1
Coin probably of a City on the Syrian Coast during the Persian
Occupation 352
A Galley. (Kouyunjik) 352
A Galley. (Khorsabad) 353
Castle of a Maritime People, probably the Tyrians. (Kouyunjik) 355
An Archer. (Kouyunjik) . ....... 356
A Spearman. (Kouyunjik) 356
a
XVI LIST OF ILLUSTRATIONS,
PACB
A Slinger.* (Kouyunjik) 356
Scribes writing down the Number of the Slain. (Kouyunjik) . 357
Sennacherib in his Chariot returning from Battle. (Kouyunjik) '• . 358
A City taken by Assault, and the Inhabitants led away Captive.
(Kouyunjik) 360
Warriors forming a Phalanx before the Walls of a besieged City.
(Kou)runjik) 361
A Horseman pursued by Assyrian Warriors. (Kouyunjik) . 362
Enemies of the Assyrians discharging their Arrows behind them.
(Kouyunjik) 363
Head-dress of a Riding Horse. (Koujrunjik) . . . • 363
Groom leading Horses. (Khorsabad) 364
INTRODUCTION.
Before submitting the following narrative of my labours
in Assyria to the reader, it may not be uninteresting to give
a slight sketch of what had been done in the field of Assyrian
antiquities, previous to the recent discoveries on the site of
Nineveh.
A few fragments scattered amongst ancient authors, and a
list of kings of more than doubtful authenticity, is all that Re-
mains of a history of Assyria by Ctesias ; whilst of that at-
tributed to Herodotus not a trace has been preserved. Of
later writers who have touched upon Assyrian histor}% Dio-
dorus Siculus, a mere compiler, is the principal. In Eusebius,
and the Armenian historians, such as Moses of Chorene,
may be found a few valuable details and hints, derived, in
some instances, from original sources, not altogether devoid
of authenticity.
It is remarkable that in profane history we meet with only
three Assyrian monarchs of whose deeds we have any ac-
count, — Ninus, Semiramis, and Sardanapalus. Ninus and
his Queen, like all the heroes of primitive nations, appear to
have become mythic characters, to whom all great deeds and
national achievements were assigned. Although originally
historic personages, they were subsequently invested to some
extent with divine attributes, and were interwoven with the
theology of the race of which they were the first, or amongst
the earliest, chiefs. Above thirty generations elapsed be-
tween Semiramis and Sardanapalus, during which more than
xviii INTRODUCTION.
one dynasty of kings occupied the Assyrian throne and main-
tained the power of the empire. Yet of these kings nothing
has been preserved but doubtful names.
The Assyrians are not particularly alluded to in the Books
of the Old Testament, until the period when their warlike ex-
peditions to the west of the Euphrates brought them into
contact with the Jews. Pul, the first king whose name is re-
corded in Scripture, reigned between eight and nine hundred
years before the Christian era, and about two hundred pre-
vious to the fall of the empire. The later monarchs are more
frequently mentioned in the Bible on account of their wars
with the Jews, whom they led captive into Assyria. Very
little is related even of their deeds unless they particularly
concern the Jewish people.
Of modem historians who have attempted to reconcile the
discrepancies of Assyrian chronology, and to restore to some
extent, from the fragments to which I have alluded, a history
of tire Assyrian empire, I scarcely know one to point out,
whose writings can claim any authority. From such con-
tradictory materials, it is not surprising that each writer
should have formed a theory of his own ; and we may, with-
out incurring the charge of scepticism, treat all their efforts
as little better than ingenious speculations. In the date alone
to be assigned to the commencement of the Assyrian em-
pire, they differ nearly a thousand years; and even when
they treat of events which approach the epoch of authentic
history, — such as the death of Sardanapalus, the invasion of
the Medes, and the fall of the empire, — there is nearly the
same comparative discrepancy. The Bactrian and Indian
expeditions of Ninus, the wonderful works of Semiramis, and
the effeminacy of Sardanapalus, have been described over
and over again, and form the standard ingredients of the
Assyrian history of modem authors. The narratives framed
upon them may convey useful lessons, and are, moreover,
full of romantic events to excite the imagination. As such
they have been repeated, with a waming that their authen-
INTRODUCTION, xix
ticity rests upon a slender basis, and that it is doubtful
whether they are to be regarded as history, or to be classed
amongst fables. Although the names of Nineveh and As-
syria have been familiar to us from childhood, and are con-
nected with the earliest impressions we derive from the Bible,
it is only when we ask ourselves what we really know con-
cerning them, that we discover our ignorance of all that
relates to their history, and even to their geographical
position.
It is, indeed, one of the most remarkable facts in history,
that the records of an empire, so renowned for its power and
civilisation, should have been entirely lost; and that the site
of a city as eminent for its splendour as its extent, should for
ages have been a matter of doubt: it is not perhaps less
curious that an accidental discovery should enable us to re-
cover- these records, and to identify this site.*
The ruins in Assyria and Babylonia, chiefly huge mcMpds,
apparently formed of mere earth and rubbish, had long ex-
cited curiosity from their size and evident antiquity. They
were the only remains of an unknown period, — of a period
antecedent to the Macedonian conquest Consequently they
alone could be identified with Nineveh and Babylon, and
could afford a clue to the site and nature of those cities.
There is, at the same time, a vague mystery attaching to re-
mains like these, which induces travellers to examine them
with more than ordinary interest, and even with some de-
gree of awe. A great vitrified naass of brick-work near the
* I was constantly asked, wlien I first returned to England, whether
Nineveh stood on the Tigris or the Euphrates, and the confiision between
Nineveh and Babylon dates fi^om an early period. We even find John
Evelyn writing in his Diary, December 20, 1673, * I had some discourse
with certain strangers, not unlearned, who had been bom not far from
old Nineveh : they assured me of the ruins being still extant, and vast
and wonderfid were the buildings, vaults, pillars, and magnificent frag-
ments ; but they could say little of the Tower of Babel that satisfied me.
But the description of the amenity and fragrance of the country for health
and cheerfidness delighted me ; so sensibly they spoke of the excellent
air and climate in respect of our cloudy and splenetic country. ' This
description probably applies to the ruins of Babylon at Hillah.
XX INTRODUCTION.
Euphrates, surrounded by the accumulated rubbish of ages,
was believed to represent the identical tower of Babel, which
called down the divine vengeance, and was overthrown, ac-
cording to an universal tradition, by the fires of heaven.
The mystery and dread, which attached to the place, were
kept up by exaggerated accounts of wild beasts, that haunted
the subterranean passages, and of the no less savage tribes
who wandered amongst the ruins. Other mounds in the
vicinity were identified with the hanging gardens of Babylon,
and those marvellous structures which tradition has attributed
to two queens, Semiramis and Nitocris. The difficulty of
reaching these remains, increased the curiosity and interest
with which they were regarded ; and a fragment from Babylon
was esteemed a precious relic, not altogether devoid of a
sacred character. The ruins which might be presumed to
occupy the site of the great Assyrian capital, were even less
known, and less visited, than those of Babylonia. Several
travellers had noticed the vast mounds of earth on the left
bank of the Tigris, opposite the modem city of Mosul, and
when the inhabitants of the neighbourhood pointed out an
ancient building as the tomb of Jonah upon the summit of
one of them, it was natural to conclude, at once, that it
marked the site of Nineveh.*
The first to engage in a serious examination of the ruins
of ancient Assyria was Mr. Rich, many years the poHtical
Resident of the East India Company at Baghdad, — a man,
whom enterprise, industry, extensive and varied learning, and
rare influence over the inhabitants of the country, acquired
* It need scarcely be observed, that the tomb of Jonah could not stand
above the buried ruins of an Assyriaii palace, and that the tradition
placing it there is not to be traced to any good source. It is, however,
received by Christians and Mussulmans, and probably originated in the
spot having been once occupied by a Christian church or convent, dedi-
cated to the prophet. The buil(Ung, which is supposed to cover the
tomb, is very much venerated by Mohammedans, and few Christians
have been allowed to enter it. The Jews, in the time of St. Jerome,
pointed out the sepulchre of Jonah at Gath-hepher, in the tribe of
Zabulon.
INTRODUCTION, xxi
as much by character as by his official position, eminently
qualified for such a task. The remains near Hillah, being in
the immediate vicinity of Baghdad, first attracted his atten-
tion; and he commenced his labours by carefully examining
their sites, and by opening trenches into the various mounds.
It is unnecessary to enter into a detailed account of his dis-
coveries. They were of considerable interest, consisting
chiefly of fragments of inscriptions, bricks, engraved stones,
and a coffin of wood ; but the careful account which he drew
up of the site of the ruins was of greater value, and has
formed the ground-work of all subsequent inquiries into the
topography of Babylon.
In the year 1820 Mr. Rich, having visited Kurdistan for
the benefit of his health, returned to Baghdad by way of
Mosul on the Tigris. Remaining some days in this city, his
curiosity was naturally excited by the great mounds on the
opposite bank of the river, and he made a careful examina-
tion of them. He learnt firom the inhabitants of Mosul that,
some time previous to his visit, a sculpture, representing
figures of men and animals, had been dug out of one of
them. This strange object had caused general wonder,
and the whole population had issued from the walls to gaze
upon it The ulema, or doctors of the law, having at length
protiounced that these figures were the idols of the infidels,
the Mohammedans, like obedient disciples, so completely
destroyed them, that Mr. Rich was unable to obtain even a
fi:^gment.
His first step was to visit the village containing the tomb
of Jonah. In the houses he met with a few stones bearing
cuneiform inscriptions, which had probably been discovered
in digging the foundations ; and under the mosque contain-
ing the tomb he was shown three very narrow and apparently
ancient passages, one within the other, with several doors or
apertures.
He next examined the largest mound of the group, called
Kouyunjik by the Turks, and Armousheeah by the Arabs,
xxii INTRODUCTION,
the circumference of which he ascertained to be 7690 feet
Amongst the rubbish he found a few fragments of pottery,
and bricks with cuneiform characters, and some remains of
building in the ravines, where the rains had washed away
the soil On a subsequent occasion he made a general sur-
vey of the ruins, which was published in the collection of his
journals, edited by his widow.
With the exception of a small stone chair, and a few remains
of arrow-headed inscriptions, Mr. Rich obtained no other
Assyrian relics from the site of Nineveh ; and he left Mosul,
little suspecting that in the mounds were buried the palaces
of the Assyrian kings. As he floated down the Tigris to
Baghdad, he visited Nimroud, and was struck by its evident
antiquity. The tales of the inhabitants of the neighbouring
villages connected the ruins with Nimrod's own city, and
better authenticated traditions with that of Al Athur, or
Ashur, from which the whole country anciently received its
name. He collected a few bricks bearing cuneiform charac-
ters, and proceeded with his journey.
The fragments thus obtained by Mr. Rich were subsequently
placed in the British Museum, and formed the principal, and
indeed almost only, collection of Assyrian antiquities in
Europe. A case scarcely three feet square enclosed all that
remained, not only of the great city of Nineveh, but of Baby-
lon itself !
Other museums in Europe contained a few cylinders and
gems, which came from Assyria and Babylonia j but they were
not classified, nor could it be determined to what exact epoch
they belonged. Of Assyrian art nothing was known. The
architecture of Nineveh and Babylon was a matter of specu-
lation, and the poet or painter restored their palaces and
temples, as best suited his theme or his subject. A descrip-
tion of the temple of Belus by Herodotus, led to an imaginary
representation of the tower of Babel. Its spiral ascent, its
galleries gradually decreasing in circumference and supported
by innumerable columns, are familiar to us from the illus-
INTRODUCTION. xxiii
trations, adorning almost the opening page of that Book, wliich
is associated with our earliest recollections.
Such was our acquaintance with Nineveh — its history, its
site, and its arts, before the discoveries described in this
work.
As inscriptions in the cuneiform character will be frequently
mentioned in the following pages, a few words on the nature
of this very ancient mode of writing may not be unacceptable
to the reader. The epithets of cuneiform, cuneatic, arrow-
headed, and wedge-shaped — tHe-d-ciou in French, and keil-
fortnig in German — have been assigned to it according as the
fancy of the describer saw in its component parts a resem-
blance to a wedge, the barb of an arrow, or a nail. The
term * cuneiform V is now most generally used in England,
and probably best expresses the peculiar form of the character,
each letter being composed of several distinct wedges com-
bined together. The following may be given as an ex-
ample: —
This inscription contains the name of an Assyrian king,
supposed to be Asshur-idanni-pal, and to be the Assyrian form
of tiie Greek Sardanapalus, and his title of king of Assyria.*
It is not improbable that these letters were originally formed
by mere lines, for which the wedge was afterwards substituted
as an embellishment ; and that the character itself may once
have resembled the picture writing of Egypt, though all traces
of its ideographic properties have been lost. The Assyrians,
like the Egyptians, appear to have also possessed a cursive
writing, resembling that of the Phoenicians, Palm)rrenes, Baby-
lonians, and Jews, which was probably used for documents
•written on papyrus or parchment, whilst the cuneiform was
reserved for monumental purposes. There is this great dif-
• The translation is, *The great house (or palace) of Sardanapalus,
the king of the country of Assyria.* More than one Assyrian king bore
this name.
XXIV INTRODUCTION,
ference between the two forms of writing, which appears to
point to a distinct origin — the cuneiform always runs from
left to right, the cursive from right to left.
The cuneiform character, under various modifications, the
letters being differently formed in different countries, prevailed
over the greater part of Western Asia to the time of the over-
throw of the Persian empire by Alexander the Great* It is
to this circumstance that we mainly owe the progress which
has been made in decyphering the Assyrian inscriptions. The
Persian kings ruled over all the nations using this peculiar
form of writing. These nations consisted of three principal
races, the Babylonian (including the Assyrian) speaking a lan-
guage allied to the Hebrew and Arabic, the Persian speaking
a tongue closely connected with Sanscrit, and the Touranian
speaking a Tatar or Turkish dialect. When recording their
victories and their history, as was their custom, on rocks and
pillars, these monarchs used the three languages spoken by
their subjects. Such was the origin of what are called the
trilingual inscriptions of Persia, which afford the principal
clue to the Assyrian writing. The tablets containing these in-
scriptions are divided into three columns, each column being
occupied by a version of the same inscription in one of the
three national languages, and each language being written
in the modification of the cimeiform character peculiar to
it. Fortunately, the contents of the inscriptions on the Per-
sian column have been accurately ascertained, and the alpha-
bet and grammar reduced to a system. Owing, however, to
the very large number of distinct characters in the Assyrian
inscriptions, there being nearly 400 different signs, whilst in
the Persian there are but thirty-nine or forty, and the great
apparent laxity in the use of letters and in the grammar, the
process of decyphering is one of considerable difficulty, not-
* Some cuneiform inscriptions of a later date than the time of Alex-
ander the Great have been discovered ; but the arrow-headed character
appears to have rapidly fallen into disuse after the overthrow of the
Persian empire.
INTRODUCTION, xxv
withstanding the aid which a version of the same inscription
in a known tongue naturally supplies.
The most important trilingual inscriptions hitherto dis-
covered are those on the palaces of Darius and Xerxes at
Persepolis, over the tomb of Darius, and in the rock tablets
of Behistun. The latter are by far the most extensive and
valuable. They contain a history of the principal events of
the reign of Darius, and giving a long list of countries and
tribes subdued by that monarch, and the names of conquered
kings and rebels, afford the best materials for decyphering the
Assyrian character, proper names being one of the surest clues
to the value of letters. The inscriptions of Behistun are upon
the face of a lofty precipice, so difficult of access, that Sir
Henry Rawlinson has alone succeeded in copying them.
By their assistance he has added greatly to our knowledge
of the cuneiform character, and has made many discoveries
of great interest and importance. Other scholars, amongst
whom may be mentioned the late Dr. Hincks, have also made
much progress in decyphering the Assyrian character. It is
to the profound learning and singular sagacity of Dr. Hincks
that we owe the determination of the numerals, the name
of Sennacherib on the monuments of Kouyunjik, and of
Nebuchadnezzar on the bricks of Babylon, and many other
most important and valuable discoveries. The actual state
of our knowledge of the cuneiform character will enable us
to ascertain the general contents of an inscription, although
probably no one can yet give a complete literal translation of
any one record, or the definite sound of many words.
The custom of engraving inscriptions on stone, and on
tablets of baked clay, the two methods adopted by the As
syiians for perpetuating their annals, is of the very highest
antiquity. The Divine commands were first given to man on
stone tables ; Job is made to exclaim, * Oh that my words
were now written ! . . . that they were graven with an iron
pen and lead in the rock for ever;'* and Ezekiel, when pro-
* Ch. xix. 23, 24.
xxvi INTRODUCTION.
phesying on the river Chebar, was directed * to take a tile and
portray upon it the city of Jerasalem.'* There could have
been no more durable method of preserving the national
records ; and inscriptions carved on the walls of palaces and
temples, and on the face of lofty rocks, and impressed on
cylinders and tablets of baked clay, have handed down to us
the only authentic history of ancient Assyria.
♦ Ch. iv. I.
NINEVEH
AND ITS REMAINS.
CHAPTER I.
First journey in Assyria — Its ruins — JCouyunJik, Nimroudy and KaJah
Sherghat — M, BottcCs discoveries — Khorsabad— Return to Mosul,
During the autumn of 1839 and winter of 1840, I had been
wandering through Asia Minor and Syria, scarcely leaving
untrod one spot hallowed by tradition, or unvisited one ruin
consecrated by history. I was accompanied by on6 no less
curious and enthusiastic than myself.* We were both equally
careless of comfort and unmindfiil of danger. We rode alone ;
our arms were our only protection; a valise behind our
saddles was our wardrobe, and we tended our own horses,
except when relieved from the duty by the hospitable in-
habitants of a Turcoman village or an Arab tent Thus
unembarrassed by needless luxuries, and uninfluenced by the
opinions and prejudices of others, we mixed amongst the
people, acquired without effort their manners, and enjoyed
without alloy those emotions which scenes so novel, and
spots so rich in varied association, cannot fail to produce.
I look back with feelings of grateful delight to those happy
* My travelling companion, during a long journey from England to
Hamadan, was Edward Ledwich Mitford, Esq., now of her Majesty's
ci'idl service in the island of Ceylon.
B
2 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
days when, free and unheeded, we left at dawn the humble
cottage or cheerful tent, and lingering as we listed, uncon-
scious of distance and of the hour, found ourselves, as the
sun went down, under some hoary ruin tenanted by the
wandering Arab, or in some crumbling village still bearing a
well-known name. No experienced dragoman measured our
distances and appointed our stations. We were honoured
with no conversations by pashas, nor did we seek any civil-
ities from governors. We neither drew tears nor curses from
villagers by seizing their horses, or searching their houses for
provisions : their welcome was sincere ; their scanty fare was
placed before us; we came and ate, and went in peace.
I had traversed Asia Minor and Syria, visiting the ancient
seats of civilisation, and the spots which reHgion has made
holy. I now felt an irresistible desire to penetrate to the
regions beyond the Euphrates, to which history and tradition
point as the birthplace of the wisdom of the West Most
travellers, after a journey through the usually frequented
parts of the East, have the same longing to cross the great
river, and to explore those lands which are separated on the
map from the confines of Syria by a vast blank stretching
from Aleppo to the banks of the Tigris. A deep mystery
hangs over Assyria, Babylonia, and Chaldaea. With these
names are linked great nations and great cities dimly
shadowed forth in history; mighty ruins, in the midst of
deserts, defying, by their very desolation and lack of definite
form, the description of the traveller ; the remnants of
mighty races still roving over the land; tlie fulfilling and ful-
filment of prophecies; the plains to which the Jew and the
Gentile alike look as the cradle of their race. After a journey
in Syria the thoughts naturally tmn eastward ; and without
treading on the remains of Nineveh and Babylon our pil-
grimage is incomplete.
I left Aleppo, with my companion, on the i8th of March.
We still travelled as we had been accustomed — ^without guide
or servants. The road across the desert is at all times im-
practicable, except to a numerous and well-armed caravan,
and offers no object of interest. We preferred that through
Bir and Orfa. From the latter city we traversed the low
country at the foot of the Kurdish hills, a country little known
I.] MOSUL. 3
and abounding in curious remains. The Egyptian frontier,
at that time, extended to the east of Orfa, and the war be-
tween the Sultan and Mohammed Ali Pasha being still un-
finished, the tribes took advantage of the confusion, and
were plundering on all sides. With our usual good fortune,
we succeeded in reaching Nisibin unmolested, although we
ran daily risks, and more than once found ourselves in the
midst of foraging parties, and of tents which, an hour before,
had been pillaged by the wandering bands of Arabs. We
entered Mosul on the loth of April.
During a short stay in this town we visited the great ruins
on the east bank of the river, which have been generally
believed to be the remains of Nineveh.* We rode also into
the desert, and explored the mound of Kalah Sherghat, a vast
ruin on the Tigris, about fifty miles below its junction with
the Zab. As we journeyed thither we rested for the night at
the small Arab village of Hammum Ali, around which are
still the vestiges of an ancient city. From the summit of an
artificial eminence we looked down upon a broad plain
separated from us by the river. A line of lofty mounds
bounded it to the east, and one of a pyramidical form rose
high above the rest Beyond it could be faintly traced the
waters of the Zab. Its position rendered its identification
easy. This was the pyramid which Xenophon had described,
and near which the ten thousand had encamped : the ruins
around it were those which the Greek general saw twenty-two
centuries before, and which were even then the remains of
an ancient city. Although Xenophon had confounded a name,
spoken by a strange race, with one familiar to a Greek ear,
and had called the place Larissa, tradition still points to the
origin of the city, and, by attributing its foundation to Nimrod,
whose name the ruins now bear, connects it with one of the
first settlements of the human race.t
Kalah Sherghat, like Nimroud, was an Assyrian ruin : a
vast shapeless mass, then covered with grass, and showing
* These ruins include the mounds of Kouyunjik and Nebbi Yunus.
t * He (Nimrod) went out into Assyria and builded Nineveh, the
city Rehoboth and Calah, and Resen, between Nineveh and Calah ;
the same is a great city.* (Gen. x. ii, 12.)
B 2
4 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
scarcely any traces of the work of man except where the;
winter rains had formed ravines down its ahnost perpen-
dicular sides, and had laid open the remains of ancient walls.
A few fragments of pottery and inscribed bricks, discovered
after a careful search amongst the rubbish which had accu-
mulated around the base of the great mound, served to prove
that it owed its construction to the people who had founded
the city of which the mounds of Nimroud are the remains.
There was a tradition cvurent amongst the Arabs, that strange
figures carved in black stone still existed amongst the ruins ;
but we searched for them in vain, during the greater part of
a day in which we were engaged in exploring the heaps of
earth and bricks, covering a considerable extent of country
on the right bank of the Tigris. At the time of our visit the
country had been abandoned by the Bedouins, and was only
occasionally visited by a few plunderers from the Shammar
or Aneyza tents. We passed the night in the jungle which
clothes the banks of the river, and wandered during the day
undisturbed by the tribes of the desert. A Cawass, who had
been sent with us by the Pasha of Mosul, alarmed at the
solitude, and dreading the hostile Arabs, left us in the wilder-
ness, and turned homewards. But he fell into the danger he
sought to avoid. Less fortunate than ourselves, at a short
distance from Kalah Sherghat, he was met by a party of
horsemen, and fell a victim to his timidity.
Were the traveller to cross the Euphrates to seek for such
ruins in Mesopotamia and Chaldsea as he had left behind
him in Asia Minor or Syria, his search would be vain.
The graceful column rising above the thick foliage of the
myrtle, ilex, and oleander; the gradines of the amphitheatre
covering a gentle slope, and overlooking the dark blue
waters of a lake-like bay; the richly carved cornice or
capital half hidden by luxuriant herbage ; are replaced by
the stem shapeless mound rising like a hill from the scorched
plain, the fragments of pottery, and the stupendous mass of
brickwork occasionally laid bare by the winter rains. He
has left the land where nature is still lovely, where, in his
mind's eye, he can rebuild the temple or the theatre, half
doubting whether they would have made a more grateful
I.] NIMROUD. 5
impression upon the senses than the ruin before him. He
is now at a loss to give any form to the rude heaps upon
which he is gazing. Those of whose works they are the
remains, unlike the Roman and the Greek, have left no
visible traces of their civilisation, or of their arts : their
influence has long since passed away. The more he con-
jectures, the more vague the results appear. The scene
around is worthy of the ruin he is contemplating ; desolation
meets desolation : a feeling of awe succeeds to wonder ; for
there is nothing to relieve the mind, to lead to hope, or to
tell of what has gone by. These huge mounds of Assyria
made a deeper impression upon me, gave rise to more
serious thoughts and more earnest reflection, than the
temples of Balbec and the theatres of Ionia.
In the middle of April I left Mosul for Baghdad. As I
descended the Tigris on a raft, I again saw the ruins of
Nimroud, and had a better opportunity of examining them.
It was evening as we approached the spot. The spring
rains had clothed the mound with the richest verdure, and
the fertile meadows, which stretched around it, were covered
with flowers of every hue. Amidst this luxuriant vegetation
were partly concealed a few fragments of bricks, pottery,
and alabaster, upon which might be traced the well-defined
wedges of the cuneiform character. Did not these remains
mark the nature of the ruin, it might have been confounded
with a natural eminence. A long line of consecutive narrow
mounds, still retaining the appearance of walls or ramparts,,
stretched from its base, and formed a vast quadrangle. The
river flowed at some distance from them : its waters, swollen
by the melting of the snows on the Armenian hills, were
broken into a tliousand foaming whirlpools by an artificial
barrier, built across the stream. On the eastern bank the
soil had been washed away by the current ; but a solid mass
of masonry still withstood its impetuosity. The Arab, who
guided my small raft, gave himself up to religious ejaculations
as we approached this formidable cataract, over which we
were carried with some violence. Once safely through the
danger, he explained to me that this unusual change in the
quiet face of the river was caused by a great dam which had
6 . NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
been built by Nimrod,* and that in the autumn, before the
winter rains, the huge stones of which it was constructed,
squared, and united by cramps of iron, were frequently
visible above the surface of the stream.t It was, in fact, one
of those monuments of a great people, to be found in all the
rivers of Mesopotamia, which were undertaken to ensure a
constant supply of water to the innumerable canals, spreading
like net-work over the surrounding country, and which, even
in the days of Alexander, were looked upon as the works of
an ancient nation.^ No wonder that the traditions of the
present inhabitants of the land should assign them to one of
the founders of the human race ! The Arab explained the
connexion between the dam and the city built by Athur, the
lieutenant of Nimrod, the vast ruins of which were then before
us, and its purpose as a causeway for the mighty hunter to
cross to the opposite palace, now represented by the mound
of Hammum Ali. He was telling me of the histories and fate
of the kings of a primitive race, still the favourite theme of
the inhabitants of the plains of Shinar, when the last glow of
twilight faded away, and I fell asleep as we glided onward to
Baghdad.
My curiosity had been greatly excited, and at that time
I formed the design of thoroughly examining, whenever it
might be in my power, the ruins of Nimroud.
It was not until the summer of 1842 that I again passed
* This dam is called by the Arabs, either Sukr el Nimroud, from
the tradition, or El Awayee, from the noise caused by the breaking of
the water over the stones. Large rafts are obliged to unload before
crossing it, and accidents frequently happen to those who neglect this
precaution.
+ Diodorus Siculus, it will be remembered, states that the stones of
the bridge built by Semiramis across the Euphrates were united by
similar iron cramps, whilst the interstices were filled up with molten
lead.
X These dams greatly impeded the fleets of the conqueror in their
navigation of the rivers of Susiana and Mesopotamia, and he caiised
many of them to be removed. (Strabo, p. 1051, ed. Ox. 1807.) By
Strabo they were believed to have been constructed to prevent the
ascent of the rivers by hostile fleets ; but their use is evident. Taver-
nier mentions, in his Travels (vol. i. p. 226), this very dam. He says
that his raft went over a cascade twenty-six feet high ; but he must have
greatly exaggerated.
I.] DISCOVERY OF KHORSABAD. 7
through Mosul on my way to Constantinople. I was then
anxious to reach the Turkish capital, and had no time to
explore ruins. I had not, however, forgotten Nimroud. I
had frequently spoken to others on the subject of excava-
tions in this and another mound, to which a peculiar interest
also attached ; and at one time had reason to hope that
some persons in England might have been induced to aid in
the undertaking. I had even proposed an examination of
the ruins to M. Coste, an architect who had been sent by the
French Government, with its embassy to Persia, to draw and
describe the monuments of that country.
I found that M. Botta had, since my first visit, been
named French Consul at Mosul ; and .had already com-
menced excavations on the opposite side of the river in the
large mound of Kouyunjik. These excavations were on a
very small scale, and, at the time of my passage, only frag-
ments of brick and alabaster, upon which were engraved a
few letters in the cuneiform character, had been discovered.
Whilst detained by unexpected circumstances at Constan-
tinople, I entered into correspondence with a gentleman in
England on the subject of excavations ; but, with this excep-
tion, no one seemed incHned to assist or take any interest in
such an undertaking. I also wrote to M. Botta, encourag-
ing him to proceed, notwithstanding the apparent paucity of
results, and particularly calling his attention to the mound of
Nimroud, which, however, he declined to explore on account
of its distance from Mosul and its inconvenient position.
I was soon called away from the Turkish capital to the pro-
vinces ; and for some months numerous occupations pre-
vented me turning my attention to the ruins and antiquities
of Assyria.
In the meanwhile M. Botta, not discouraged by the want
of success which had attended his first attempts, continued
his excavations in the mound of Kouyunjik ; and to him is
due the honour of having found the first Assyrian monu-
ment. This remarkable discovery owed its origin to the
following circumstances. The small party of Arabs em-
ployed by M. Botta were at work on Kouyunjik, when a
peasant from a distant village chanced to visit the spot
8 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
Seeing that every fragment of brick and alabaster uncovered
by the workmen was carefully preserved, he asked the reason
of this, to him, strange proceeding. On being informed
that they were in search of sculptured stones, he advised
them to try the mound on which his village was built, and
in which, he declared, many such things as they wanted had
been exposed on digging the foundations of new houses.
M. Botta, having been frequently deceived by similar stories,
was not at first inclined to follow the peasant's advice, but
subsequently sent an agent and one or two workmen to the
place. After a little opposition from the inhabitants, they
were permitted to sink a well in the mound ; and at a
small distance froip the svurface they came to the top of a
wall which, on digging deeper, they found to be lined with
sculptured slabs of gypsum. M. Botta, on receiving inform-
ation of this discovery, went at once to the village, which
was called KJiorsabad. Directing a wider trench to be
formed, and to be carried in the direction of the wall, he
soon found that he had entered a chamber, connected with
others, and surrounded by slabs of gypsum covered with
sculptured representations of battles, sieges, and similar
events. His wonder may easily be imagined. A new his-
tory had been suddenly opened to him — the records of an
unknown people were before him. He was equally at a loss
to account for the age and the nature of the monument. The
style of art of the sculptures, the dresses of the figures, the
mythic forms on the walls, were all new to him, and afforded
no clue to the epoch of the erection of the edifice, or to the
people who were its founders. Numerous inscriptions, ac-
companying the bas-rehefs, evidendy contained the expla-
nation of the events thus recorded in sculpture, and being in
the cuneiform, or arrow-headed, character, proved that the
building belonged to an age preceding the conquests of
Alexander ; for it is generally admitted that after the subju-
gation of the west of Asia by the Macedonians, the cunei-
form writing ceased to be employed.* It was evident that
* Subsequent discoveries in Western Asia seem to show that the
cuneiform character was still in use, though probably to a very limited
extent, for some time after this period.
I.] KHORSABAD. 9
the monument appertained to a very ancient and very civil-
ised people ; and it was natural from its position to refer it
to the inhabitants of Nineveh, a city, which, although it
could not have occupied a site so distant from the Tigris,
must have been in the vicinity of these ruins. M. Botta
had discovered an Assyrian edifice, the first, probably, which
had been exposed to die view of man since the fall of the
Assyrian empire.
M. Botta was not long in perceiving that the building
which had been thus partly excavated, unfortunately owed
its destruction to fire ; and that the gypsum slabs, reduced
to lime, were rapidly falling to pieces on exposure to the air.
No precaution could arrest this- rapid decay; and it was to
be feared that this wonderful monument had only been
uncovered to complete its ruin. The records of victories
and triumphs, which had long attested the power and swelled
the pride of the Assyrian kings, and had resisted the
ravages of ages, were now passing away for ever. They
could scarcely be held together until an inexperienced
pencil could copy them, and thus secure evidence of their
existence. Almost all that was first discovered thus speedily
disappeared; and the same fate has befallen nearly every-
thing subsequently found at Khorsabad. A regret is almost
felt that so precious a memorial of a great nation should have
been exposed to destruction ; but as far as the object of
the monument is concerned, the intention of its founders
will be amply fulfilled, and the records of their might will
be more widely spread, and more effectually preserved, by
modem art, than the most exalted ambition could have
contemplated.
This remarkable discovery having been communicated
by M. Botta, through M. Mohl, to the French Academy, that
body lost no time in applying to the Minister of Public In-
struction for a grant to enable him to carry on his researches.
The application was attended to with that readiness and
munificence which almost invariably distinguish the French
Government in undertakings of this nature. Ample fimds
for excavations were at once assigned to M. Botta, and
M. Flandin, an artist of acknowledged skill, was placed
lo NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
under his orders to draw such objects as could not be
removed. The work was carried on with activity and suc-
cess, and, by the beginning of 1845, the monument had
been completely uncovered. M. Botta did not extend his
researches beyond KJiorsabad; but, having secured many
fine specimens of Assyrian sculpture for his country, he
returned to Europe with a rich collection of inscriptions,
copied by himself, and forming the most important result of
his discovery.
The success of M. Botta had increased my anxiety to ex-
plore the ruins of Assyria. It was evident that Khorsabad
could not stand alone. It did not represent ancient
Nineveh, nor did it afford us any additional evidence as to
the site of that city. If the edifice discovered had been one
of its palaces, surely other buildings of a vaster and more
magnificent character must exist nearer the seat of govern-
ment, on the banks of the river Tigris. It was true that M.
Botta had laboured unsuccessfully for above three months
in the great mound opposite Mosul, which was usually
identified with the Assyrian capital ; but that mound much
exceeded in extent any other known ruin; and it was pos-
sible that in the part hitherto explored the traces of the
buildings which it once contained were as completely lost
as they were in many parts of the mound of Khorsabad.
My thoughts still went back to Nimroud, and to the tra-
ditions which attached to it. I spoke to others about
excavations, but received little encouragement. At last, in
the autumn of 1845, Lord Stratford de RedclifFe, then Sir
Stratford Canning, offered to incur, jointly with myself, for a
limited period, the expense of excavations in Assyria, in the
hope that, should success attend the attempt, means would
be found to carry it out on an adequate scale.
It was now in my power to prosecute a work which I had
so long desired to undertake ; and the reader will not, I
trust, be disinclined to join with me in feelings of gratitude
towards one who, whilst he has maintained so successfully
the honour and interests of England by his high character
and eminent abilities, has acquired for his country so many
I.] EXCA VA TIONS PROJECTED. 1 1
great monuments of ancient civilisation and art* It is to
Lord Stratford de RedclifFe we are mainly indebted for the col-
lection of Assyrian antiquities with which the British Museum
has been enriched; widiout his liberality and public spirit
the treasures of Nimroud would have been reserved for the
enterprise of those who have appreciated the value and
importance of the discoveries at Khorsabad.
It was deemed prudent that I should leave Constanti-
nople without acquainting any one with the object of my
journey. I was furnished with the usual documents given
to travellers when recommended by the Embassy, and with
letters of introduction to the authorities at Mosul. My pre-
parations were soon completed, and I left Constantinople
by steamer for Samsoun in the middle of October. Anxious
to reach the end of my journey, I crossed the mountains of
Pontus and the great steppes of the Usum Yilak as fast as
post-horses could carry me, descended the high lands into
the valley of the Tigris, galloped over the vast plains of
Assyria, and reached Mosul in twelve days.
♦ I need scarcely remind the reader that it is to Lord Stratford de
Redcliffe we owe the first collection of the marbles of Halicamassus
placed in the British Museum. The difficulties which stood in the way
of the acquisition of these valuable relics, and the skill wjiich was
required to obtain them, are not generally known. I can testify to the
efforts and labour which were necessary for nearly three years before the
repugnance of the Ottoman government could be overcome, and per-
mission obtained to extract the sculptures from the walls of a castle,
which was more jealously guarded than any similar edifice in the
empire. Their removal, notwithstanding the almost insurmountable
difficulties raised by the authorities and inhabitants of ^udroon, was
most successfully effected by Mr. Alison. The Elgin Marbles, and all
other remains from Turkey or Greece now in Europe, were obtained
with comparative ease.
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chav.
CHAPTER II.
Mohammed Pasha — His cruelties — The state of the country — Start for
Nimroud — An Arab family — Commence excavations — Discovery of a
chamber — Of Inscriptions — Of ivory ornaments — Return to Mosul —
Conduct of the Pasha — Excavations commenced amongst various ruins
— Return to Nimroud — Further discoveries — Sdamiyah — Discovery of
sculptures — Description ofbas-rdiefs — Interrupted fy the Pasha — Fur-
ther discovery of satlptures — Deposition of the Pcuha — Departure for
Baghdad.
My first step on reaching Mosul was to present my letters to
Mohammed Pasha, the governor of the province. Being a
native of Candia, he was usually known as Keritli Oglu (the
son of the Cretan), to distinguish him from his celebrated
predecessor of the same name. The appearance of his
Excellency was not prepossessing, but it matched his temper
and conduct. Nature had placed hypocrisy beyond his reach.
He had one eye and one ear ; he was short and fat, deeply
marked by the small-ppx, uncouth in gestures and harsh in
voice. His fame had reached the seat of his government
before him. On the road he had revived many good old
customs and impositions, which the reforming spirit of the
age had suffered to fall into decay. He particularly insisted
on dish-parasi f or a compensation in money, levied upon
all villages in which a man of such rank is entertained, for
the wear and tear of his teeth in masticating the food he
condescends to receive from the inhabitants. On entering
Mosul, he had induced .several of the principal Aghas, who
had fled from the town on his approach, to return to their
homes; and having made a formal display of oaths and
protestations of friendship and protection, cut their throats
* Literally, * tooth-money.'
II.] MOHAMMED PASHA. 13
to show how much his word could be depended upon. At
the time of my arrival, the population was in a state of
terror and despair. Even the appearance of a casual
traveller led to hopes, and reports were whispered about
the town that I was the bearer of the news of the disgrace of
the tyrant Of this the Pasha was aware, and hit upon a
plan, to test the feelings of the people towards him. He was
suddenly taken ill one afternoon, and was carried to his
harem aJmost lifeless. On the following morning the palace
was closed, and the attendants answered inquiries by myste-
rious motions, which could only be interpreted in one fashion.
The doubts of the Mosuleeans gradually gave way to general
rejoicings ; but at mid-day his Excellency, who had posted
h^ spies all over the town, appeared in perfect health in the
market-place. A general trembling seized the inhabitants.
His vengeance fell principally upon those who possessed
property, and had hitherto escaped his rapacity. They
were seized and stripped, on the plea that they had spread
reports detrimental to his authority.
The villages, and the Arab tribes, had not suffered less
than the townspeople. The Pasha was accustomed to give
instructions to those who were sent to collect money, in
three words — *Go, destroy, eat;'* and his agents were
not generally backward in entering into the spirit of
them. The tribes, who had been attacked and plundered,
were retaliating upon caravans and travellers, or laying waste
the cultivated parts of the pashalic. The villages were
deserted, and the roads were little frequented and very
insecure.
Such was the Pasha to whom I was introduced two days
after my arrival by the British Vice-Consul, Mr. Rassam.
He read the letters which I presented to him, and received
me with that civility which a traveller generally expects from
a Turkish functionary of high rank. His anxiety to know
the object of my journey was evident, but his curiosity was
not gratified for the moment
Many reasons rendered it necessary that my plans should
♦ To eat money, i. e. to get money unlawfully, or by pillage, is a com-
mon expression in the East.
14 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
be concealed, until I was ready to put them into execution.
Although I had always experienced from M. Botta the most
friendly assistance, there were others who did not share his
sentiments ; from the authorities and the people of the town
I could only expect the most decided opposition. On the
8th of November, having secretly procured a few tools, I en-
gaged a mason at the moment of my departure, and carry-
ing with me a variety of guns, spears, and other formidable
weapons, declared that I was going to hunt wild boars in a
neighbouring village, and floated down the Tigris on a small
raft constructed for my journey. I was accompanied by
Mr. Ross (a British merchant then residing at Mosul*), my
Cawass, and a servant
At this time of the year nearly seven hours are required to
descend the Tigris, from Mosul to Nimroud. It was sunset
before we reached the Awai, or dam across the river. We
landed and walked to a small hamlet called Naifa. No light
appeared as we approached, nor were we even saluted by
the dogs, which usually abound in an Arab village. We had
entered a heap of ruins. I was about to return to the raft,
upon which we had made up our minds to pass the night,
when the glare of a fire lighted up the entrance to a mise-
rable hovel. Through a crevice in the wall, I saw an Arab
family crouching round a heap of half-extinguished embers.
The dress of the man, the ample cloak and white turban,
showed that he belonged to one of the tribes, which cultivate
a little land on the borders of the Desert, and are distin-
guished, by their more sedentary habits, from the Bedouins.
Near him were three women, lean and haggard, their heads
almost concealed in black kerchiefs, and the rest of their per-
sons enveloped in the striped cloak or aba. Some children,
nearly naked, and one or two mangy greyhounds, completed
the group. As we entered all the party rose, and showed
* Mr. Ross will perhaps permit me to acknowledge in a note the
valuable assistance I received from him, during my labours in Assyria.
His knowledge of the natives, and intimate acquaintance with the
resources of the country, enabled him to contribute much to the success
of my undertaking ; whilst to his friendship I am indebted for many
pleasant hours, wMch would have passed wearily in a land of strangers.
II.] NIMROUD. 15
some alarm at this sudden appearance of strangers. The
man, however, seeing Europeans, bid us welcome, and
spreading some corn-sacks on the ground, invited us to be
seated The women and children retreated into a comer
of the hut Our host, whose name was Awad or Abd-Allah,
was a sheikh of the Jehesh. His tribe having been plun-
dered by the Pasha, and being now scattered in different
parts of the country, he had taken refuge in this ruined vil-
lage. He had learnt a httie Turkish, and was intelligent
and active. Seeing, at once, that he would be useful, I ac-
quainted him with the object of my journey; offering him
the prospect of regular employment in the event of the ex-
periment proving successful, and assigning him fixed wages
as superintendent of the workmen. He volunteered to walk,
in the middle of the night, to Selamiyah, a village three miles
distant, and to some Arab tents in the neighbourhood, to pro-
cure men to assist in the excavations.
I slept little during the night. The hovel in which we had
taken shelter, and its inmates, did not invite slumber; but
such scenes and companions were not new to me : they could
have been forgotten, had my brain been less excited. Hopes,
long cherished, were now to be realised, or were to end in
disappointment. Visions of palaces under-ground, of gigan-
tic monsters, of sculptured figures, and endless inscriptions
floated before me. After forming plan after plan for re-
moving the earth, and extricating these treasures, I fancied
myself wandering in a maze of chambers from which I could
find no outlet. Then, again, all was reburied, and I was
standing on the grass-covered mound. Exhausted, I was
at length sinking into sleep, when hearing the voice of Awad,
I rose from my carpet, and joined him outside the hovel.
The day aheady dawned ; he had returned with six Arabs,
who agreed for a small sum to work under my direction.
The lofty cone and broad mound of Nimroud rose like a .
distant mountain in the morning sky. But how changed
was the scene since my former visit ! The ruins were no
longer clothed with verdure and many-coloured flowers ; no
signs of human habitation, not even the black tent of the
Arab, were seen upon the plain. The eye wandered over a
i6 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
parched and barren waste, across which occasionally swept
the whirlwind, dragging with it a cloud of sand. About a
mile from us was the small village of Nimroud, like Naifa, a
heap of ruins.
Twenty minutes' walk brought us to the principal mound.
The absence of all vegetation enabled me to examine the
remains with which it was covered. Broken pottery and
fragments of bricks, inscribed with cuneiform characters, were
strewed on all sides. The Arabs watched my motions as I
wandered to and fro, and observed with surprise the objects
I had collected. They joined, however, in the search, and
brought me handfuls of rubbish, amongst which I found with
joy the fragment of a bas-relief. The material on which it
was carved had been exposed to fire, and resembled, in every
respect, the burnt gypsum of Ithorsabad. Convinced from
this discovery that sculptured remains must still exist in some
part of the mound, I sought for a place where excavations
might be commenced with a prospect of success. Awad led
me to a piece of alabaster which appeared above the soil.
We could not remove it, and on digging downward, it proved
to be the upper part of a large slab. I ordered all the men
to work around it, and they shortly uncovered a second slab.
Continuing in the same line, we came upon a third ; and
in the course of the morning, discovered ten more, the
whole forming a square, with a slab missing at one comer,
uninjured by fire, and in perfect preservation. It was evident
that we had found a chamber, and that the gap was its en-
trance. I now dug down the face of one of the stones, and
an inscription in the cuneiform character was soon exposed
to view. Similar inscriptions occupied the centre of all the
slabs, which were otherwise quite plain, and without any
traces of carving upon them. Leaving half the workmen
to remove the rubbish from the chamber, I led the rest to
the S. W. comer of the mound, where I had observed many
fragments of calcined alabaster.
A trench, opened in the side of the mound, brought me
almost immediately to a wall, bearing inscriptions in the
same character as those already described. The slabs,
which had been nearly reduced to lime by exposure to
II.]
A WAD.
17
intense heat, threatened to fall to pieces as soon as un-
covered.
Night interrupted our labours. I returned to the village
well satisfied with their result It was now evident that
the remains of buildings of considerable extent existed in
the mound : and that although some had been destroyed by
fire, others had escaped the conflagration. As inscriptions,
and the fi'agment of a bas-relief had been found, it was
natural to conclude that sculptures were still buried under
Awad, Sheikh of the Jehesh.
the soil. I determined, therefore, to explore the N. W.
comer, and to empty the chamber partly uncovered during
the day.
On returning to the village, I removed from the crowded
hovel in which we had passed the night. With the assist-
ance of Awad, who was no less pleased than myself with
our success, we patched up with mud the least ruined house
in the village, and restored its falling roof. We contrived
c
x8 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
at least to exclude, in some measure, the cold night winds ;
and to obtain a little privacy for my companion and my-
self.
Next morning my workmen were increased by five Turco-
mans from Selamiyah, who had been attracted by the pros-
pect of regular wages. I employed half of them in empty-
ing the chamber, and tlie rest in following the wall at the
S.W. comer of the mound. Before evening, the work of
the first party was completed, and I found myself in a room*
panelled with slabs about eight feet high, and varying from
six to four feet in breadth. Upon one of them, which had
fallen backwards from its place, was rudely inscribed, in
Arabic characters, the name of Ahmed Pasha, one of the
former hereditary governors of Mosul. A native of Selami-
yah remembered that some Christians were employed to dig
into the mound about thirty years before, in search of stone
for the repair of the tomb of Sultan Abd -Allah, a Mussul-
man Saint, buried on the left bank of the Tigris, a few miles
below its junction with the Zab. They uncovered this slab ;
but being unable to move it, they cut upon it the name of
their employer, the Pasha. My informant further stated
that, in another part of the mound, he had forgotten the
precise spot, they had found sculptured figures, which they
broke in pieces, carrying away the fragments.
The bottom of the chamber was paved with smaller slabs
than those which lined the walls. They were covered with
inscriptions on both sides, and had been placed upon a
layer of bitumen, which, having been used in a liquid state,
had retained a perfect impression in relief of the characters
carved upon the stone. The inscriptions on the upright
slabs were about twenty lines in length, and all were precisely
similar.
In the rubbish near the bottom of the chamber I found
several objects in ivory, upon which were traces of gilding ;
amongst them were the figure of a king carrying in one hand
the Egyptian crux ansata, or emblem of life, part of a
crouching sphinx, and an elegant ornamental border of
♦ Chamber A, Plan II. p. ^
II.J RETURN TO MOSUL. 19
flowers. Awad, who had his own suspicions of the object
of my search, which he could scarcely persuade himself was
limited to mere stones, carefully collected all the scattered
fragments of gold leaf he could find in the rubbish ; and,
calling me aside in a mysterious and confidential fashion,
produced them wrapped up in a piece of dingy paper. * O
Bey,' said he, 'Wallah! your books are right, and the Franks
know that which is hid from the true believer. Here is the
gold, sure enough, and please God, we shall find it all in a
few days. Only don't say any thing about it to those Arabs,
for they are asses and cannot hold their tongues. The
matter will come to the ears of the Pasha.' The Sheikli was
much surprised, and equally disappointed, when I gene-
rously presented him with the treasures he had collected,
and all such as he might hereafter discover. He left me, mut-
tering * Yia Rubbi!' and other pious ejaculations, and lost
in conjectures as to the meaning of these strange pro-
ceedings.
At the foot of the slabs in the S.W. comer, we found a
great accumulation of charcoal, proving that the building of
which they had formed part had been destroyed by fire. I
dug also in several directions in this part of the mound,
and in many places came upon the calcined remains of
walls.
On the third day, I opened a trench in the high conical
mound, but found only fragments of inscribed bricks. I
also dug at the back of the north side of the chamber first
explored, in the expectation of coming upon other walls
beyond, but unsuccessfully. As my chief aim was to
ascertain, as soon as possible, the existence of sculptures,
all my workmen were moved to the S.W. comer, where the
many remains of walls akeady discovered evidently belong-
ing to the same edifice, promised speedier success. I con-
tinued the excavations in this part of the mound until the
13th, still finding inscriptions, but no sculptures.
Some days having elapsed since my departure from Mosul,
and the experiment having been so far successful, it was
time to return to the town and acquaint thePashq, who had,
no doubt, ahready heard of my proceedings, with the object
20 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
of my researches. I started, therefore, early in the morning
of the 14th, and galloped to Mosul in about three hours.
I found the town in great commotion. In the first place,
his Excellency had, on the previous day, entrapped his
subjects by the reports of his death, in the manner already
described, and was now actively engaged in seeking pecu-
niary compensation for the insult he had received in the
rejoicings of the population. In the second, the British
Vice-Consul having purchased an old building to store his
stock in trade, the Cadi, a fanatic and a man of infamous
character, had given out that the 'Franks had formed a
design of buying up the whole of Turkey, and was endea-
vouring to raise a riot, which was to end in the demolition of
the Consulate and other acts of violence. I called on the
Pasha, and, in the first place, congratulated him on his
speedy recovery; a compliment which he received with a
grim smile of satisfaction. He then introduced the subject
of the Cadi, and the disturbance he had created. * Does
that ill-conditioned fellow,' exclaimed he, * think that he has
Sheriff Pasha (his Excellency's immediate predecessor) to
deal with, that he must be planning a riot in the town?
When I was at Siwas the Ulema tried to excite the people
because I encroached upon a burying-ground. But I made
them eat dirt ! Wallah ! I took every gravestone and built
up the castle walls with them.' He pretended at first to be
ignorant of the excavations at Nimroud ; but subsequently
thinking that he would convict me of prevarication in my
answers to his questions as to the amount of treasure dis-
covered, pulled out of his writing-tray a scrap of paper, as
dingy as that produced by Awad, in which was also preserved
an almost invisible particle of gold leaf. This, he said, had
been brought to him by the commander of the irregular
troops stationed at Selamiyah, who had been watching my
proceedings. I suggested that he should name an agent to
be present as long as I worked at Nimroud, to take charge
of all the precious metals that might be discovered. He
promised to write on the subject to the chief of the irre-
gulars, but offered no objection to the continuation of my
researches.
II.] FALSE REPORTS OF RUINS. 21
Reports of the treasures extracted from the ruins had
already reached Mosul, and had excited the cupidity and
jealousy of the Cadi and principal inhabitants of the place.
It was evident that I should have to contend against a
formidable opposition; but as the Pasha had not, as yet,
openly objected to my proceedings, I hired some Nestorian
Christians, who had left their mountains for the winter to
seek employment in Mosul, and sent them to Nimroud. At
the same time I engaged agents to explore several mounds
in the neighbourhood of the towTi, hoping to ascertain the
existence of sculptured buildings in some part of the country,
before steps were taken to interrupt me.
Mormous, an Arab of the tribe of the Haddedeen, had
informed me that figures had been accidentally uncovered in
a mound near the village of Tel Kef As he offered to take
me to the place, we rode out together ; but he only pointed
out the site of an old quarry, with a few rudely hewn stones.
Such disappointments occurred daily ; and I wearied myself
in scouring the country to see remains which had been most
minutely described to me as sculptures, or slabs covered
with writing, and w^hich generally proved to be the ruin of
some modem building, or an early tombstone inscribed with
Cufic characters.
The mounds, which I directed to be opened, were those
of Baasheikha (of considerable size), Baazani, Karamles,
Karakush, Yara, and Jerraiyah. Connected with the latter
ruin many strange tales were current in the country. It was
said that on its lofty conical mound formerly stood a temple
of black stone, held in great reverence by the Yezidis,^ or
worshippers of the devil, with walls covered with all manner
of sculptured figures, and with inscriptions in an unknown
language. When the Bey of Rowandiz fell upon the
Yezidis, and massacred those who were unable to escape,
he destroyed this house of idols ; but the ruins of the build-
ing, it was declared, hid only been covered by a small
accumulation of rubbish. The lower part of an Assyrian
figure, in relief on basalt, dug up, it was said, in the mound,
was actually brought to me ; but T had afterwards reason to
suspect that it was discovered at Khorsabad. Excavations
22
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
were carried on for some time at Jerraiyah, but no remains
of the Yezidi temple were brought to light.
Having finished my arrangements in Mosul, I returned to
Nimroud on the 19th. During my absence, my Cawass had
carried the excavations along the back of a wall, in the
S.W. comer of the mound, and had discovered an entrance
■CALC OF FEET
Plan I. South-West Ruin, Nimroud.
or dporway.* Being anxious to make as much progress as
possible, I increased my workmen to thirty, and distributed
them in three parties. By opening long trenches at right
angles in various directions, we came upon the top of a
wall,t built of slabs with inscriptions similar to those already
described. One, however, was reversed, and was covered
with characters, exceeding in size any I had yet seen. On
examining the inscription carefully, I found that it corre-
sponded with those of the chamber in the N.W. comer ; but
♦ Wall e, Plan I.
t Wall m, same Plan.
II.] SELAMIYAH. 23
as the edges of this, as well as of all the other slabs hitherto
discovered in the S.W. ruins, had been cut away to make
the stones fit into the wall, several letters had been de-
stroyed. Frmn these facts it was evident that materials
taken from another building had been used in the construc-
tion of the one we were now exploring ; but as yet it could
not be ascertained whether the face or the back of the slabs
had been uncovered; for the general plan of the edifice
could not be determined until the heap of rubbish and
earth under which it was buried had been removed. The
excavations were now carried on but slowly. The soil,
mixed with sun-dried and baked bricks, pottery, and frag-
ments of alabaster, offered considerable resistance to the tools
of'|;he workmen; and when loosened, had to be removed in
baskets and then thrown over the edge of the mound. The
Nestorians from the mountains, strong and hardy men, could
alone wield the pick ; the Arabs were employed in carry-
ing away the earth. Spades could not be used, and there
were no other means than those I had adopted to clear
away the rubbish from the ruins. A person standing
on the mound could see no remains of building until he ap-
proached the edge of the trenches, into which the workmen
descended by steps, and where parts of the walls were ex-
posed to view.
The Abou-Salman and Tai Arabs continuing their depre-
dations in the plains of Nimroud and surrounding country,
I deemed it prudent to remove from Naifa, where I had
hitherto resided, to Selamiyah. This village is built on a
rising ground near the Tigris, and was formerly a place of
some importance, being mentioned at a very early period as
a market town by the Arab geographers, who generally
connect it with the ruins of Athur or Nimroud. It occupies
an ancient site, and in long lines of mounds, enclosing the
village, can be traced the walls of an Assyrian town, or
more probably of one of the suburbs of the capital. Even
five years before Selamiyah had been a flourishing place, and
could furnish 150 well-armed horsemen. The Pasha had,
however, plundered it; and the inhabitants had fled to the
mountains and into the neighbouring province of Baghdad.
24 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
Ten miserable huts now stood in the midst of ruins of
bazaars and streets surrounding a kasr or palace, belonging
to the former hereditary Pashas of Mosul, well-built of
alabaster, but rapidly falling into decay. I had intended to
take possession of this building, which was occupied by a
few Hytas or irregular troops; but the rooms were in such a
dilapidated condition that the low mud hut of the Kiayah,
or chief of the village, appeared to be both safer and warmer.
I accordingly spread my carpet in one of its comers, and
giving the owner a few piastres to finish other dwelling-places
which he had commenced, established myself for the winter.
The premises, which were speedily completed, consisted of
four hovels, surrounded by a mud wall, and roofed with
reeds and boughs of trees. I occupied half of the largest
habitation, the other half being appropriated for beasts
of the plough, and various domestic animals. We were
separated by a wall ; in which, however, numerous apertures
served as means of communication. These I studiously en-
deavoured for some time to block up. A second hut was
devoted to the wives, children, and poultry of my host ; a
third served as kitchen and servants' hall : the fourth was
converted into a stall for my horses. In the enclosure
formed by the buildings and outer wall, the few sheep and
goats which had escaped the rapacity of the Pasha, congre-
gated during the night, and kept up a continual bleatmg and
coughing until they were milked and turned out to pasture
at day-break.
The roofs not having been constructed to exclude the
winter rains now setting in, it required some exercise of
ingenuity to escape the torrent which descended into my
apartment I usually passed the night on these occasions
crouched up in a comer, or under a mde table which I had
constmcted. The latter, having been surrounded by trenches
to carry off the accumulating waters, generally afforded the
best shelter. My Cawass, who was a Constantinopolitan,
complained bitterly of the hardships he was compelled to
endure, and I had some difficulty in prevailing upon my
servants to remain with me.
The present inhabitants of Selamiyah, and of most of the
II.] INHABITANTS OF SELAMIYAH. 25
villages in this part of the Pashalic of Mosul, are Turcomans,
descendants of tribes brought by the early Turkish Sultans
from the north of Asia Minor, to people a country which had
been laid waste by repeated massacres and foreign invasions.
In this part of the Ottoman Empire, there is scarcely, ex-
cept in Mosul and in the Mountains, a vestige of the ancient
population. The great tribes which inhabit the Desert came
from the Gebel Shammar, in Nedjd, within the memory of
man. The inhabitants of the plains to the east of the Tigris
are mostly Turcomans and Kurds, mixed with Arabs, or with
Yezidis, who are strangers in the land, and whose origin can-
not easily be determined. A few Chaldaean and Jacobite
Christians, scattered in Mosul and the neighbouring villages,
or dwelling in the most inaccessible part of the mountains
of Kurdistan, their places of refuge from the devastating
bands of Tamerlane, are probably the only descendants of
that great Assyrian people which once swayed, from these
plains, a considerable part of Asia.
The Yuz-bashi, or captain of the irregular troops, one
Daoud Agha, a native of the north of Asia Minor, called
upon me as soon as I was established in my new quarters.
Like most men of his class, acknowledged freebooters,* he
* The irregular cavalry (Hytas as they are called in this part of
Turkey, and Bashi-bozuks in Roumelia and Anatolia) are collected
from all classes and provinces. A man known for his courage and
daring is named Hyta-bashi, or chief of the Hytas, and is furnished
with tesk^res, or orders for pay and provisions, for so many horsemen,
from four or five hundred to a thousand or more. He collects all the
vagrants and freebooters he can find to make up his number. They
must provide their own arms and horses, although sometimes they are
furnished with them by the Hyta-bashi, who deducts a part of their pay
until he reimburses himself. The best Hytas are Albanians and Lazes,
and they form a very effective body of irregular cavalry. Their pay at
Mosul is small, amounting to about eight shillings a month ; in other
provinces it is considerably more. They are quartered on the villages,
and are the terror of the inhabitants, whom they plunder and ill-treat as
they think fit. When a Hyta-bashi has established a reputation for
himself, his followers are numerous and devoted. He wanders about
the provinces, and like a condottiere of the middle ages, sells his
services, and those of his troops, to the Pasha who offers most pay, and
the best prospects of plunder. Since the introduction of the tanzimat^
or reformed system of Government, the number of irregular troops has
been greatly reduced, and the Hytas are no longer able to ill-treat the
inhabitants of villages as formerly.
26 NINEVEH AND ITS /REMAINS. [Chap.
was frank and intelligent. He tendered me his services,
entertained me with his adventures, and planned hunting
expeditions. A few presents secured his adherence, and he
proved himself afterwards a very useful and faithful ally.
I had now to ride three miles every morning to the mound
of Nimroud ; and my workmen, who were afraid, on account
of the Arabs, to live at Naifa, returned, after the day's labour,
to Selamiyah. The excavations were carried on as actively
as the means at my disposal would permit. An entrance,
or doorway, had now been completely cleared, and the backs
of several inscribed slabs had been uncovered.* A comer-
stone, which had evidently been brought from another
building, was richly sculptured with flowers and scroll-work
in relief; but there were no figures ; nor could any idea be
yet formed of the relative position of the walls. I therefore
ordered a trench to be opened from the doorway into the
interior of the mound, presuming that we should ultimately
come to the opposite side of the chamber, to which, it ap-
peared probable, we had found the entrance. After removing
a large accumulation of earth mixed with charcoal, charred
wood, and broken bricks, we reached the top of a new wall
on the afternoon of the 28th November. In order to ascer-
tain whether we were in the inside of a chamber, the work-
men were directed to clear away the earch from both sides
of the slabs. The south face was unsculptured, but the first
stroke of the pick on the opposite side disclosed the top of
a bas-relief The Arabs were no less excited than myself
by the discovery; and working until dark, notwithstanding
a heavy fall of rain, they completely exposed to view two
slabs, t
On each slab were two bas-reliefs, divided by an inscription.
In the upper compartment of the largest was a battle scene,
in which were represented two chariots, each drawn by
richly caparisoned horses at full speed, and containing a
group of three warriors, the principal of whom was beardless
and evidently an eunuch. This figure was clothed in a com-
plete suit of mail of metal scales, embossed in the centre,
* Wall and entrance ^, Plan I. p. 22. t Wall/, same Plan.
II.]
ASSYRIAN WARRIORS.
27
38 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
and apparently attached to a shirt of felt or linen. This
shirt was confined at the waist by a girdle. On his head was
a pointed helmet, from which fell lappets, covered with metal
scales, protecting the ears, lower part of the face, and neck,
the whole head-dress resembling that of the early Normans.
His left hand grasped a bow at full stretch, whilst his right
drew the string, with the arrow ready to be discharged.
On his left arm was a guard, probably of leather, to protect
it from the arrow. His sword was in a sheath, the end
of which was elegantly adorned with the figures of two
lions. In the same chariot were, a charioteer urging on
the horses with reins and whip, and a shield-bearer who
warded off the shafts of the enemy with a circular shield.
The chariots were low, rounded at the top, and edged by
a rich moulding or border, probably inlaid with precious
metals or painted. To the sides were suspended two highly
ornamented quivers, each containing, beside the arrows,
a hatchet and an axe. The wheels had six spokes. The
curved end of the pole, adorned with the head of a bull,
was attached to the fore part of the chariot by a singular
contrivance, of which neither the use nor the material
can be determined from the sculptures. It appears to have
been intended both as an ornament and as a support for
the pole, and may have been a light frame-work, covered
with linen or silk ; its breadth almost precludes the idea of
its having been of any other material. It was elaborately
painted or embroidered with sacred emblems and elegant
devices. The chariot, which was probably of wood and
open behind, was drawn by three horses, whose trappings,
decorated with a profusion of tassels and rosettes, must have
been of the most costly description. They may have been
of the looms of Dedan, whose merchants, in the days of
old, supplied the East with * precious clothes for chariots.'*
The archer was probably an Ass)n:ian general, the Rab-
saris, or chief of the eunuchs, and was pursuing a flying
enemy. Beneath the chariot wheels were scattered the
conquered and the dying, and an archer, about to be
trodden down, was represented as endeavouring to stop the
* Ezekiel, xxvii. 20.
II.] DISCOVERY OF BAS-RELIEFS. 29
advancing horses. The costume of the vanquished differed
from that of the Assyrian warriors. They wore short tunics
descending to their knees, and their hair was confined by a
simple fillet round the temples.
I observed with surprise the elegance and richness of the
ornaments, the attempt at a faithful delineation of the limbs
and muscles, both in the men and horses, and the knowledge
of art displayed in the grouping of the figures, and in the
general composition. In all these respects, as well as in
costume, this sculpture appeared to me not only to differ
from, but to surpass in design and execution, the bas-reliefs
of Khorsabad. I traced also, in the cuneiform character used
in the inscription, a marked difference from that on the
monument discovered by M. Botta. Unfortunately, the slab
had been exposed to fire, and was fractured into so many
pieces that • it would have been impossible to remove it
The edges had, moreover, been cut away, to the injury of
some of the figures and of the inscription ; and as the next
slab was reversed, it was evident that both had been brought
from another building.
The lower bas-relief on the same slab represented the
siege of a castle, or walled city. To the left were two
warriors, armed with short swords and circular shields, and
dressed in a tunic, edged by a fringe of tassels, and confined
at the waist by a broad girdle. Each carried a quiver at his
back, and a bow on his left arm. They wore the pointed
helmet, before described. The foremost warrior was ascend-
ing a ladder placed against the castle. Three turrets, with
angular battlements, rose above walls similarly ornamented.
In the first turret were two warriors, one in the act of
discharging an arrow, the other raising a shield and casting
a stone at the assailants, from whom the besieged were dis-
tinguished by their head-dress, — a simple fillet binding the
hair above the temples. The second turret was occupied
by a slinger preparing his sling. In the interval between
this turret and the third, and over an arched gateway, was a
female figure, distinguished by long hair descending upon
her shoulders in ringlets. Her right hand was raised as if
in the act of asking for mercy. In the third turret were two
30 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
more of the besieged, the first discharging an arrow, the
second elevating his shield and endeavouring with a torch
to bum an instrument resembling a catapult, which had
been brought up to the wall by an incline constructed
apparently of boughs of trees and rubbish. These figures
were out of all proportion when compared with the size of
the building. An Assyrian warrior, bending on one knee,
and holding a torch in his right hand, was setting fire to the
gate of the castle, whilst another in full armour was forcing
stones from the walls with an instrument, probably of iron,
resembling a blunt ^pear. Between them was a wounded
man falling headlong from the battlements.
The adjoining slab, which was angular in shape and formed
a comer, was much injured, the greater part having been cut
away in order to fit it into its place. The upper of the two
compartments into which it was divided was occupied
by two warriors ; the foremost in a pointed helmet, riding
on one horse and leading a second ; the other without hel-
met, standing in a chariot, and holding the reins loosely in
his hands. The chariot horses had been destroyed, and the
marks of the chisel were visible on many parts of the slab,
the sculpture having been in some places carefully defaced.
The lower bas-relief represented the battlements and towers
of a castle. A woman stood on the walls tearing her hair in
sign of grief. Beneath, by the side of a stream, denoted by
numerous undulating lines, crouched a fisherman drawing a
fish from the water with a fishing line. This slab had been
exposed to fire like that adjoining, and had sustained too
much injury to be removed
As I was meditating in tlie evening over my discovery,
Daoud Agha entered, and seating himself near me, delivered
a long speech, to the effect, that he was a servant of the
Pasha, who was again the slave of the Sultan; and that
servants were bound to obey the commands of their master,
however disagreeable and unjust they might be. I saw at
once to what this exordium was about to lead, and was
prepared for the announcement, that he had received orders
from Mosul to stop the excavations by threatening those who
v/ere inclined to work for me. On the following rooming.
II.] INTERRUPTIONS. 31
therefore, I rode to the town, and waited upon hi^ Excel-
lency. He pretended to be taken by surprise, disclaimed
having given any such orders, and directed his secretary to
write at once to the commander of the irregular troops, who
was to give me every assistance rather than throw impedi-
ments in my way. He promised to let me have the letter
in the afternoon before I returned to Selamiyah; but an
officer came to me soon after, and stated that as the Pasha
was unwilling to detain me he would forward it during the
night. I rode back to the village, and acquainted Daoud
Agha with the result of my visit About midnight, however,
he returned to me, and declared that a horseman had just
brought him more stringent orders than any he had yet
received, and that on no account was he to permit me to
carry on the excavations.
Surprised at this inconsistency, I returned to Mosul early
next day, and again called upon the Pasha. * It was with deep
regret,' said he, * I learnt after your departure yesterday, that
the mound in which you are digging had been used as a
burying-ground by Mussulmans, and was covered with their
graves ; now you are aware that by the law it is forbidden
to disturb a tomb, and the Cadi and Mufti have already
made representations to me on the subject' * In the first
place,' replied I, * being pretty well acquainted with the
mound, I can state that no graves have been disturbed ; in.
the second, after the wise and firm ^poiitica' which your
Excellency exhibited at Siwas, gravestones would present no
difficulty. Please Gk)d, the Cadi and Mufti have profited by
the lesson which your Excellency gave to the ill-mannered
Ulema of that city.' * In Siwas,' returned he, immediately
understanding my meaning, *I had Mussulmans to deal
with, and there was tanzimat,* but here we have only Kurds
and Arabs, and Wallah ! they are beasts. No, I cannot
allow you to proceed ;. you are my dearest and most intimate
firiend ; if anything happens to you, what grief should I not
suffer ; your life is more valuable than old stones ; besides,
the responsibility would fall upon my head.' Finding that
* The reformed system, introduced into most provinces of Turkey,
had not then been extended to Mosul and Baghdad.
32 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
the Pa^a had resolved to interrupt my proceedings, I pre-
tended to acquiesce in his answer, and requested that a Cawass
of his own might be sent with me to Nimroud, as I wished
to draw the sculptures and copy the inscriptions which had
already been uncovered. To this he consented, and ordered
an officer to accompany me.
On my return to Selamiyah there was little difficulty in
inducing the Pasha's Cawass to' permit a few workmen to
guard the sculptures during the day ; and as Daoud Agha
considered that this functionary's presence relieved him
from any further responsibility, he no longer interfered with
me. Wishing to ascertain the existence of the graves,
and also to draw one of the bas-reliefs, which had been
uncovered, I rode to the ruins on the following morning,
accompanied by the Hytas and their chief, who were going
their usual rounds in search of plundering Arabs. Daoud
Agha confessed to me on our way that he had received or-
ders to make graves on the mound, and that his troops had
been employed for two nights in bringing stones from distant
villages for that purpose.* * We have destroyed more real
tombs of the true Behevers,' said he, ' in making sham ones,
than you could have defiled between the Zab and Selamiyah.
We have killed our horses and ourselves in carrying those
accursed stones.* A steady rain setting in, I left the horse-
men, and returned to the village.
In the evening Daoud Agha brought back with him a
prisoner and two of his followers severely wounded. He
had fallen in with a party of horsemen under Sheikh Abd-ur-
rahman of the Abou-Salman Arabs, whose object in crossing
the Zab had been to plunder me as I worked at the mound.
After a short engagement, the Arabs were compelled to re-
cross the river.
I continued to employ a few men to open trenches by way
of experiment, and was not long in finding other sculptures.
Near the western edge of the mound were discovered parts
of several colossal figures, at the foot of the S.E. comer a
* In Arabia, the' graves are merely marked by large stones placed
upright at the head and feet, and m a heap over the body.
II.] DEPOSITION OF MOHAMMED PASHA, 33
crouching lion, rudely carved in black basalt, and in the
centre a pair of gigantic winged bulls, the head and half
of the wings of which had been destroyed. On the backs
of the slabs on which the bulls were sculptured, in high
relief, were inscriptions in the arrow-headed character. The
remains of two small winged lions forming the entrance
into a chamber, and a bas-relief nine feet in height, repre-
senting a human figure raising the right hand, and carrying
a branch with three flowers resembling the poppy, in the
left, were also uncovered But these sculptures afforded no
clue to the nature of the buildings, of which only detached
and unconnected walls had as yet been exposed.
The experiment had now been fairly made ; there was no
longer any doubt of the existence not only of sculptures and
inscriptions, but even of large edifices in the interior of the
mound of Nimroud. I lost no time, therefore, in acquaint-
ing Sir Stratford Canning with my discovery, and in Urging
the necessity of a Firman, or order from the Sultan, which
would prevent any future interference either on the part of
the authorities, or of the inhabitants of the country.
It was nearly Christmas, and as it was desirable to re-
move from the mound the tombs, which had been made by
the Pasha's orders, and others, more genuine, which had since
been found, I came to an understanding on the subject with
Daoud Agha. I covered over the sculptures brought to light,
and withdrew altogether from Nimroud, leaving an agent at
Selamiyah.
On entering Mosul on the morning of the i8th of Decem-
ber, I found the whole population in a ferment of joy. A
Tatar, or imperial courier, had that morning brought from
Constantinople the welcome news that the Porte, at length
alive to the wretched condition of the province, and to the
misery of the inhabitants, had disgraced the governor, and
had named Ismail Pasha, a young major-general of the new
school, to carry on affairs until Hafiz Pasha, who had been ap-
pointed to succeed Keritli Oglu, could reach his government.
Ismail Pasha, who had been for some time in command
of the troops at Diarbekir, had gained a great reputation for
justice amongst the Mussulmans, and for toleration amongst
34 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
the Christians. Consequently his appointment had given
much satisfaction to the people of Mosul, who were prepared
to receive him with a demonstration. However, he slipped
into the town during the night, some time before he had been
expected. On the following morning a change had taken
place at the palace, and, Mohammed Pasha, with his fol-
lowers, were reduced to extremities. The dragoman of the
consulate, who had business to transact with the late go-
vernor, found him sitting in a dilapidated chamber, through
which the rain penetrated without hindrance. * Thus it is,'
said he, ' with God's creatures. Yesterday all those dogs were
kissing my feet; to-day every one, and everything, falls upon
me, even the rain ! '
Meanwhile the state of the country rendering the continua-
tion of my researches at Nimroud almost impossible, I deter-
mined to proceed to Baghdad, to make arrangements for the
removal of the sculptures at a future period.
III.] ISMAIL PASHA. 35
CHAPTER III.
Rehirn to Mosul — Ismail Pasha — Change in the state of the country —
Return to Nimroud — The ruins in spring — Excavations resumed^ —
Further discoveries — New interruptions — Sheikh Abd-ur-rahman and
the Abou- Salman Arabs — Fresh bas-reliefs in the north-west corner —
Discovery of the principal palace — Entire bas-rdiefs — Discovery of the
colossal lions — Surprise of the Arabs — Sensation at Mosul y and conduct
of the Pasha and Cadi — Excavations stopped — Further discoveries —
— Description of the human-headed lions — Reflections on their antiquity
and object — The yebour Arabs — Their Sheikhs — Nimroud in March
— Description of the plain at sunset — The tunnel of Negoub — An
Assyrian inscription.
On my return to Mosul in the beginning of January, I found
Ismail Pasha installed in the government He received me
with courtesy, offered no opposition to the continuation of my
researches at Nimroud, and directed the irregular troops sta-
tioned at Selamiyah to afford me assistance and protection.
The change since my departure had been as sudden as greaw,
A few conciliatory acts on the part of the new governor, an
order from the Porte for an inquiry into the sums unjustly
levied by the late Pasha, with a view to their repayment, and
a promise of a diminution of taxes, had so far encouraged
those who had fled to the mountains and the desert, that
the inhabitants of the villages were slowly returning to their
homes; and even the Arab tribes, whose pasture grounds are
in the districts of Mosul, were again pitching their tents on
the banks of the Tigris.
During my absence my agents had not been inactive.
Several trenches had been opened in the great mound of
Baasheikha; and fragments of sculpture and inscriptions,
with entire pottery and inscribed bricks, had been discovered
D 2
36 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
there. At lt.aramles a platform of brickwork had been
uncovered, and the Assyrian origin of the ruin proved by
the cuneiform inscription on the bricks, which contained the
name of Sargon, the Khorsabad king.
I rode to Nimroud on the 17th of January, having first
engaged a party of Nestorian Chaldaeans to accompany me.
The change that had taken place in the face of the country
during my absence, was no less remarkable than that in the
political state of the province. To me they were both equally
agreeable and welcome. The rains, which had fallen almost
incessantly from the day of my departure for Baghdad, had
rapidly brought forward the vegetation of spring. The mound
was no longer an arid and barren heap ; its surface and its
sides were covered with verdure. From the summit of the
pyramid the eye ranged, on one side, over a broad plain en-
closed by the Tigris and the Zab ; on the other, over a low
undulating country bounded by the snow-capped mountains
of Kurdistan ; but it was no longer the dreary waste I had
left a month before ; the landscape was clothed in green, the
black tents of the Arabs chequered the plain of Nimroud,
and their numerous flocks pastured on the distant hills.
The Abou-Salman had recrossed the Zab, and had sought
their old encamping grounds. The Jehesh and Shemutti
Arabs had returned to their villages, around which the wan-
dering Jebours had pitched their tents, and were now en-
gaged in cultivating the soil. Even on the mound the plough
opened its furrows, and corn was sown over the palaces of
the Assyrian kings.
Security had been restored, and Nimroud ofiered a more
convenient and pleasant residence than Selamiyah. Hiring,
therefore, three mud-built huts, I removed to my new dwell-
ing place. A few rude chairs, a table, and a wooden bed-
stead, formed the whole of my furniture. My Cawass spread
his carpet, and hung his tobacco pouch in the comer of a
hovel, which he had appropriated, and spent his days in
peaceful contemplation. The servants constructed a rude
kitchen, and the grooms shared the stalls with the horses.
Mr. Hormuzd Rassam, a young Chaldaean gentleman, and
the brother of the British Vice-consul, came to reside with
III.] HOSTILITY OF THE CADI, 37
me, and undertook the pa)nnent and superintendence of the
workmen.
My agent, with the assistance of the chief of the Hytas,
had punctually fulfilled the instructions he had received on
my departure. Not only were the counterfeit graves care-
fully removed, but even others, which possessed more claim
to respect, had been rooted out. I entered into an elaborate
argument with the Arabs on the subject of the latter, and
proved to them that, as the bodies were not turned towards
Mecca, they could not be those of true Believers. I or-
dered the remains, however, to be carefully collected, and to
be reburied at the foot of the mound.
Since my last visit, another sculptured slab, divided into
two compartments, had been discovered in the S. W. ruins.*
The upper bas-relief had been destroyed ; the lower con-
tained four figures, carrying supplies for a banquet, or spoil
taken from the enemy. The object carried by the foremost
figure could not be determined; the second bore either fruit
or a loaf of bread ; the third a basket and a skin of wine ;
the fourth a similar skin, and a vessel of not inelegant shape.
The four figures were clothed in long fringed robes, descend-
ing to the ankles, and wore the conical cap or helmet before
described. The slab had been reduced in size, to the injury
of the sculpture, and had evidently belonged to another
•building. It had on either side the- usual inscription, and
had been so much injured by fire that it could not be
moved.
My labours had scarcely been resumed when I received
information that the Cadi of Mosul was endeavouring to
stir up the people against me, on the plea that I was dig-
ging up and carrying away treasure ; and, what was worse,
finding inscriptions proving that the Franks once held th;^;
country, and upon the evidence of which they intended im-
mediately to resume possession of it, exterminating all true
Mussulmans. These stories, however absurd they may ap-
pear, rapidly gained ground in the town. Old Mohammed
Emin Pasha, a great authority upon such matters, brought out
* WalU, Plan I. p. 22.
38 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
his Yakuti (a well-known and much-esteemed Arabic writer),
and confirmed, by that geographer's account of treasures
anciently found at Khorsabad, the allegations of the Cadi. A
representation was ultimately made by the Ulema to Ismail
Pasha; and as he expressed a wish to see me, I rode to
Mosul. He was not^ he said, influenced by the Cadi or the
Mufti, nor did he believe the absurd tales which they had
spread abroad. I should shortly see how he intended to
treat these troublesome fellows, but he thought it prudent at
present to humour them, and made it a personal request that
I would, for the time, suspend the excavations. I consented
with regret ; and once more returned to Nimroud, without
being able to gratify the ardent curiosity I felt to explore
further the extraordinar}'' building, the nature of which was
still a mystery to me.
The Abou-Sahnan Arabs, who encamp around Nimroud,
are known for their thievish propensities, and might have
caused me some annoyance. Thinking it prudent, therefore,
to conciliate their chief, I rode over one morning to their
principal encampment. Sheikh Abd-ur-rahman received me
at the entrance of his capacious tent of black goat-hair,
which was crowded with relations, followers, and strangers,
enjoying his hospitality. He was one of the handsomest
Arabs I ever saw ; tall, robust, and well-made, with a coun-
tenance in which intelligence was no less marked than
courage and resolution. On his head he wore a turban of
dark linen, from under which a many-coloured kerchief fell
over his shoulders; his dress was a simple white Hnen shirt,
descending to the ankles, and an Arab cloak thrown loosely
over it Contrary to the custom of the Arabs, he had
shaved his beard ; and, although he could scarcely be much
beyond forty, I observed that the little hair which could be
distinguished under his turban was already grey. He received
me with every demonstration of hospitality, and led me to
the upper place in the tent, which was divided by a goat-hair
curtain from the harem, or women's quarters. The place of
reception for the guests was at the same time occupied by
two favourite mares and a colL A few camels were kneeling
on the grass around, and the horses of the strangers were
III.] FRESH DISCOVERIES. 39
tied by halters to the tent-pins. From the carpets and
cushions, which were spread for me, stretched on both sides
a long line of men of the most motley appearance, seated on
the bare ground. The Sheikh placed himself at the furthest
end, as is the custom in some of the tribes, to show his re-
spect for his guest ; and could only be prevailed upon, after
many excuses and protestations, to share the carpet with me.
In the centre of the group, near a small fire of dried camel's
dung, crouched a half-naked Arab, engaged alternately in
blowing up the expiring embers, and in pounding the roasted
coffee in a mortar, ready to replenish the huge copper pots
which stood near him.
After the customary compliments had been exchanged
with all around, one of my attendants beckoned to the
Sheikh, who left the tent to receive the presents I had
brought to him, — a silk gOAvn, such as are worn by Arab
chiefs, and a supply of coffee and sugar. He dressed him-
self in his new attire, and returned to the assembly. * Insh-
allah,* said I, * we are now friends, although scarcely a
month ago you came over the Zab on purpose to appropriate
the little property I am accustomed to carry about me.*
* Wallah, Bey,' he replied, * you say true, we are friends ; but
listen : the Arabs either sit down and serve his Majesty the
Sultan, or they eat from others, as others would eat from
them. Now my tribe are of the Zobeide, and were brought
here many years ago by the Pashas of the Abd-el-JelleeL*
These lands were given us in return for the services we
rendered the Turks in keeping back the Tai and the Sham-
mar, who crossed the rivers to plunder the villages. All the
great men of the Abou-Salman perished in encounters with
the Bedouin t, and Injeh Bairakdar, Mohammed Pasha, upon
whom God has had mercy, acknowledged our fidelity and
treated us with honour. When that blind dog, the son of
the Cretan, may curses fall upon him ! came to Mosul, I
waited upon him, as it is usual for the Sheikh ; what did he
do % Did he give me the cloak of honour ? No ; he put me,
* The former hereditary governors of Mosul.
+ The father, uncles, and two or three brothers of Abd-ur-rahman,
besides many of his other relations, had been slain as he described.
40 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
an Arab of the tribe of Zobeide, a tribe which had fought
with the Prophet, into the pubHc stocks. For forty days my
heart melted away in a damp cell, and I was exposed to
every variety of torture. Look at these hairs,' continued he,
lifting up his turban, * they turned white in that time, and I
must now shave my beard — a shame amongst the Arabs. I
was released at last ; but how did I return to the tribe ? — a
beggar, unable to kill a sheep for my guests. He took my
mares, my flocks, and my camels, as the price of my liberty.
Now tell me, O Bey, in the name of God, if the Osmanlis
have eaten from me and my guests, shall I not eat from them
and theirs 1 '
The fate of Abd-ur-rahman had been such as he described
it ; and so had fared several chiefs of the desert and of the
mountains. It was not surprising that these men, proud of
their origin and accustomed to the independence of a wan-
dering life, had revenged themselves upon the unfortunate in-
habitants of the. villages, who had no less cause to complain
than themselves. However, the Sheikh promised to abstain
from plunder for the future, and to present himself to Ismail
Pasha, of whose conciliatory conduct he had already heard.
It was nearly the middle of February before I thought it
prudent to make fresh experiments among the ruins. To
avoid notice I employed only a few men, and confined
myself to the examination of such parts of the mound as
appeared to contain buildings. My first attempt was in the
S. W. comer, where a new wall was speedily discovered, all
the slabs of which were sculptured, and uninjured by fire,
though they had, unfortunately, been half destroyed by long
exposure to the atmosphere.* On three consecutive slabs
was one bas-relief; on others were only parts of a subject.
It was evident from the costume, the ornaments, and the
general treatment, that these sculptures did not belong either
to the same building, or to the same period as those pre-
viously discovered. I recognised in them the style of Khor-
sabad, and in the inscriptions certain characters, which
were peculiar to the remains from that ruin. These slabs,
• Wall r/, Plan I. p. 22.
III.] DISCOVERY OF BAS-RELIEFS. 41
like those in other parts of the edifice, had evidently been
brought from elsewhere.
The most perfect of the bas-reliefs was, in many respects,
interesting. It represented a king, distinguished by his high
conical tiara, raising his extended right hand and resting his
left upon a bow. At his feet crouched a warrior, probably a
captive enemy or rebel, but more likely the latter as he wore
. the pointed helmet peculiar to the Assyrians. An eunuch
held a fly-flapper or fan over the head of the king, who ap-
peared to be conversing or performing some ceremony with
an officer standing in front of him, — probably his vizir or
minister.* Behind this personage, who diff'ered from the
king by his head-dress, — a simple fillet confining the hair, —
were two attendants, the first an eunuch, the second a bearded
figure. This bas-relief was separated from a second above,
by an inscription ; the upper sculpture had been almost to-
tally destroyed, and I could with difficulty trace a wounded
figure, wearing a helmet with a curved crest of Greek fonn,
and horsemen engaged in battle. Both subjects were con-
tinued on the adjoining slabs, but they were broken off" near
the bottom, and the feet of a row of figures, probably other
attendants, standing behind the king^and his minister, could
alone be distinguished.
On the same wall, which had completely disappeared in
some places, could be traced another group resembling that
just described, and several colossal winged figures in low
relief.
Some deep trenches led to the discovery of two new walls, t
the sculptures on which were not better preserved than those
previously found in this part of the mound. Of the lower
parts of several colossal figures, some had been purposely
* I shall in future designate this person, who is continually repre-
sented in the Assyrian bas-reliefs, the king's vizir or minister. It has
been conjectured that he is a friendly or tributary monarch, but as he
often occurs amongst the attendants, aiding the king in his battles, or
waiting upon him at the celebration of religious ceremonies, with his
hands crossed in front, as is still the fashion in the East with depen-
dents, it appears more probable that he was his minister, or some high
officer of the court.
t s and /, Plan I. p. 22.
42
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS.
[Chap.
defaced by a sharp instrument ; others, from long exposure,
had been almost entirely obliterated.
These experiments were sufficient to prove that the build-
ing I was exploring had not been entirely destroyed by fire,
but had been partly exposed to gradual decay. No well-
preserved sculptures had hitherto been discovered, and only
one or two could be removed. I determined, therefore, to
abandon this corner of the mound, and to resume excavations
Plan II. North-west Palace, Nimroud.
in the north-west ruins near the chamber first opened, where
the slabs were uninjured. The workmen were directed to
dig behind the remains of the small lions, which appeared
to have stood at a door or entrance. After removing much
earth, they discovered a few unsculptured slabs, fallen from
their places and broken in many pieces. The walls of the
room of which they had originally formed part could not be
traced
III.] COLOSSAL HUMAN FIGURES. 43
As this part of the building stood on the very edge of the
mound, it had probably been more exposed, and had conse-
quently sustained more injury than any other. I determined,
therefore, to open a trench more in the centre of the edifice,
and accordingly commenced digging at the edge of a deep
gully or ravine, which, worn by the winter rains, extended
far into the ruins. In two days the workmen reached the top
of an entire slab, standing in its original position.* On one
face of it I discovered, to my great satisfaction, two colossal
human figures carved in low relief, and in admirable preser-
vation. In a few hours the earth and rubbish were com-
pletely removed from the sculpture. The figures were back to
back, and from the shoulders of each sprang two wings. They
appeared to represent divinities, presiding over the seasons, or
over some particular religious ceremonies. The one, whose
face was turned to the East, carried a fallow deer on his
right arm, and in his left hand a branch bearing five flowers.
Around his temples was a fillet, adorned in front with a ro-
sette. The other held a square vessel or basket, by a handle,
in the left hand, and an object resembling a fir-cone in the
rightt On his head he wore a rounded cap, having at the
lower part a kind of horn curved upwards in front. The
garments of both, consisting of a robe or stole falling from
the shoulders to the ankles, and a short tunic underneath
descending to the knee, were richly and tastefully decorated
with embroideries and fringes. Their hair fell in a profusion
of ringlets on their shoulders, and their beards were elabo-
rately arranged in alternate rows of curls. Although the re-
lief was lower, yet the outline was perhaps more careful and
* Chamber B, Plan II.
+ This square vessel was probably of metal,
sometimes made to resemble a basket. It may
have contained water, as one of the sacred ele-
ments ; whilst the fir-cone, from its inflammable
nature, may have typified fire, another holy ele-
ment ; or the two objects may have been used for
sacrificial purposes, and the winged figures may
represent priests engaged in sacrifice. The fir- _„^^^^ _ _^
cone and this square vessel or basket are con- Vessel or Basket carriecf
stantly seen in the Assynan sculptures. by Winged Figures.
44
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS.
[Chap.
true than that of the sculptures of Khorsabad. Tlie limbs
were delineated with peculiar accuracy, and the muscles and
bones faithfully, though too strongly and coarsely marked.
The ornaments delicately graven on the robes, the tassels
and fringes, the bracelets and armlets, the elaborate curls of
Winged Figure. (N.W. Palace, Nimroud.)
the hair and beard, were all as perfect as if the bas-relief had
just left the workshop of the sculptor. In the centre of the
slab, and crossing the figures, was an inscription in the
arrow-headed character.*
• These figures are now in the British Museum.
III.]
SACRED TREE.
45
Adjoining this slab was a second, cut so as to form an
angle or comer of the wall, and sculptured with an elegant
device, in which curved branches, springing from a kind of
scroll-work, terminated in
flowers of graceful form.
As one of the winged
figures last described was
turned, as if in act of adora-
tion, towards this device,
it was evidently a sacred
emblem ; and I repognised
in it the holy tree, or tree of
life, so universally adored,
from the remotest periods,
in the East, and preserved
in the ancient religion of
the Persians to the final
overthrow of their empire
by the Arabian conquer-
ors. The flowers were
formed by seven petals
springing from two ten-
drils, or a double scroll;
resembling that graceful
ornament characteristic* of
the Ionic order of archi-
tecture known as the
* honeysuckle.' In the em-
broideries on the garments
of the two winged figures
just described, and on
other bas-reliefs subse-
Sacred Tree. (N. W. Palace, Nimroud. )
quently discovered, this flower alternates with another or-
nament resembling a tulip, either full blown, or in the
bud.* The fact of the two flowers occurring together es-
tablishes, beyond a doubt, the origin of one of the most
* That the Assyrians derived this ornament from a tulip or lily is,
I think, almost proved by the representation of a flower and bud in a
bas-relief discovered at Kouyunjik.
46
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
favourite and beautiful ornaments of Greek art, which may
thus be traced directly to Assyria. The intertwining branches
AmviUh (IrMttmont, (Nimrotid.) Assyrian Ornament. (Kouyunjik.)
Itfmiy (iMfk HonGyHU(;klo Ornament.
Later Greek Honeysuckle Ornament.
Ill ihU MHrrcd tree of the Assyrians may also illustrate the
'Ml'IVVMlk of pomegranates,* which was one of the principal
ornaments of the temple of Solomon,*
as further discoveries have shown that
there was a remarkable similarity be-
tween the architecture and architec-
tural ornaments of the Jews and of
the Assyrians. This sculpture and
the two winged figures resembled in
their style and details several of the
fragments built into the S.W. palace,
proving at once from whence the greater
^ M i^art of the materials used in the con-
\ \ ^^ Htruction of that building had been
N y obtained. Adjoining this corner-stone
' was another slab, on which was sculp-
tured also in low relief, a figure of
^ S K^^\^\ vii. 4li 4i' Similar trees, with pomegranates instead of
jiayyVAJ^, \\V>\V rtliv*^^^**'^*^'' ♦'''*^'*>vored in the centre palace of Nimroud.
Mv. ^'V^^^^VMS \\\ i>i^ ' PftlftCC of Nineveh and Persepolis restored,'
III.]
SACRED TREE.
45
Adjoining this slab was a second, cut so as to form an
angle or comer of the wall, and sculptured with an elegant
device, in which curved branches, springing from a kind of
scroll-work, terminated in
flowers of graceful form.
As one of the winged
figures last described was
turned, as if in act of adora-
tion, towards this device,
it was evidently a sacred
emblem ; and I recognised
in it the holy tree, or tree of
life, so universally adored,
from the remotest periods,
in the East, and preserved
in the ancient religion of
the Persians to the final
overthrow of their empire '^^
by the Arabian conquer-
ors. The flowers were
formed by seven petals
springing from two ten-
drils, or a double scroll;
resembling that graceful
ornament characteristic* of
the Ionic order of archi-
tecture known as the
* honeysuckle.' In the em-
broideries on the garments
of the two winged figures
just described, and on
other bas-reliefs subse-
Sacred Tree. (N. W. Palace, Nimroud. )
quently discovered, this flower alternates with another or-
nament resembling a tulip, either full blown, or in the
bud.* The fact of the two flowers occurring together es-
tablishes, beyond a doubt, the origin of one of the most
* That the Assyrians derived this ornament from a tulip or lily is,
I think, almost proved by the representation of a flower and bud in a
bas-relief discovered at Kouyunjik.
.48 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
bV the head of an eagle or of a vulture.* The long curved
beak was half open, and displayed a narrow pointed tongue,
on which were still the traces of red paint. On the
shoulders fell the usual curled and bushy hair of the As-
syrian images, and a comb of feathers rose on the top
of the head. Two wings sprang from the shoulders. In
one hand this figure held the square vessel, in the other the
fir-cone. In a kind of girdle it carried three daggers, the
handle of one being in the form of the head of a bull.
They may have been of precious metal, but more probably
of copper, inlaid with ivory or enamel. A few days before,
a square-headed copper dagger handle, hollowed to receive
an ornament of some such material, had been discovered
in the south-west ruins, and is now preserved in the British
Museum.
This figure, which was probably intended to represent the
union of certain divine attributes, may perhaps be identified
with the god Nisroch, in whose temple Sennacherib was
slain by his sonsf after his return from his unsuccessful
expedition against Jerusalem; the word *Nisr' signifying,
in many Semitic languages, an eagle.J
On all these figures were seen traces of colour, particularly
on the hair, beard, eyes, and sandals, and there can be no
doubt that they had been originally painted, like all early
works of sculpture. The slabs on which they were sculp-
tured had sustained no injury, and had evidently formed
part of the panelling of a chamber, which could be com-
architecture, * that it is now impossible to doubt that all that is Ionic
in the arts of Greece is derived from the valleys of the Tigris and
Euphrates' (p. 340).
* It has been suggested that it is the head of a cock, but it is im-
questionably that of a carnivorous bird of the eagle tribe.
+ 2 Kings, xix. 37.
X The form of this deity was conjectured to be- that of an eagle long
before the discovery of the Assyrian sculptures (And. Beyeri ad J oh.
Seldeni de Dis Syriis Syntag. addit. p. 325). The identification of this
figure with the god * Nisroch ' has, however, given rise to a great deal of
discussion. Sir Henry Rawlinson is of opinion that there was no
Assyrian god known by the name of Nisroch, which, he contends,
is a corruption in some MSS. of the Septuagint, of *Asarak,* or
•Mesorak.*
III.]
THE GIGANTIC HEAD,
49
pletely explored by digging along the wall, now partly un-
covered.
On the morning following these discoveries, I had ridden
to the encampment of Sheikh Abd-ur-rahman, and was re-
tummg to the mound, when I saw two Arabs of his tribe
coming towards me and urging their mares to the top of
Discovery of the Gigantic Head.
their speed. On reaching me they stopped. * Hasten, O
Bey,' exclaimed one of them — * hasten to the diggers, for
they have found Nimrod himself. Wallah ! it is wonderful
^ but it is true ! we have seen him with our eyes. There is
no God but God;' and both joining in this pious exclama-
tion, they galloped off, without further words, in the direc-
tion of their tents.
On reaching the ruins I descended into the newly opened
50 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
trench, and found the workmen, who had ahready seen me,
as I approached, standing near a heap of baskets and cloaks.
Whilst Awad advanced and asked for a present to celebrate
the occasion, the Arabs withdrew the screen they had hastily
constructed, and disclosed an enormous human head sculp-
tured in full out of the alabaster of the country. They had
uncovered the upper part of a figure, the remainder of which
was still buried in the earth. I saw at once that the head
must belong to a winged lion or bull, similar to those of
Khorsabad and Persepolis. It was in admirable preserva-
tion. The expression was calm, yet majestic, and the
outline of the features showed a freedom and knowledge of
art, scarcely to be looked for in works of so remote a period.
The cap had three horns, and, unlike that of the human-
headed bulls hitherto found in Assyria, was rounded and
without ornament at the top.
I was not surprised that the Arabs had been amazed and
terrified at this apparition. It required no stretch of imagi-
nation to conjure up the most strange fancies. This gigan-
tic head, blanched with age, thus rising from the bowels of
the earth, might well have belonged to one of those fearful
beings which are described in the traditions of the country
as appearing to mortals, slowly ascending from the regions
below. One of the workmen, on catching the first glimpse
of the monster, had thrown down his basket and had run
off towards Mosul as fast as his legs could carry him. I
learnt this with regret, as I anticipated the consequences.
Whilst I was superintending the removal of the earth,
which still clung to the sculpture, and giving directions for
the continuation of the work, the noise of horsemen was
heard, and presently Abd-ur-rahman, followed by half his
tribe, appeared on the edge of the trench. As soon as the
two Arabs I had met had reached their tents, and published
the wonders they had seen, every one mounted his mare and
rode to the mound to satisfy himself of the truth of these
inconceivable reports. When they beheld the head they all
cried together, * There is no God but God, and Mohammed
is his Prophet 1 ' It was some time before the Sheikh could
be prevailed upon to descend into the pit, and convince
III.] CONSTERNATION AT MOSUL. 51
himself that the image he saw was of stone. * This is not
the work of men's hands,* exclaimed he, * but of those in-
fidel giants of whom the Prophet, peace be with him! has
said, that they were higher than the tallest date tree ; this is
one of the idols which Noah, peace be with him ! cursed
before the flood.' In this opinion, the result of a carefiil
examination, all the bystanders concurred. *
I now ordered a trench to be dug due south from the
head, in the expectation of finding a corresponding figure,
and before night-fall reached the object of my search about
twelve feet distant Engaging two or three men to sleep
near the sculptures, I returned to the village, and celebrated
the day's discovery by a slaughter of sheep, of which all the
Arabs near partook. As some wandering musicians chanced
to be at Selamiyah, I sent for them, and dances were kept
up during the greater part of the night On the following
morning Arabs from the other side of the Tigris, and the
inhabitants of the surrounding villages, congregated on the
mound. Even the women could not repress their curiosity,
and came in crowds, with their children, from afar. My
Cawass was stationed during the day in the trench, into
which I would not allow the multitude to descend.
As I had expected, the report of the discovery of the
gigantic head, carried by the terrified Arab to Mosul, had
thrown the town into conmiotion. He had scarcely checked
his speed before reaching the bridge. Entering breathless
into the bazaars, he announced to every one he met that
Nimrpd had appeared. The news soon got to the ears of
the Cadi, who called the Mufti and the Ulema together, to
consult upon this unexpected occurrence. Their delibera-
tions ended in a procession to the Governor, and a formal
protest, on the part of the Mussulmans of the town, against
proceedings so directly contrary to the laws of the Koran.
The Cadi had no distinct idea whether the very bones of
the mighty hunter had been uncovered, or only his image ;
nor did Ismail Pasha very clearly remember whether Nimrod
was a true-believing prophet, or an infidel. I consequently
received a somewhat unintelligible message from his Excel-
lency, to the effect that the remains should be treated with
E 2
52
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
respect, and be by no means further disturbed; that he
wished the excavations to be stopped at once, and desired
to confer with me on the subject.
I rode to Mosul at once, and called upon him accordingly.
I had some difficulty in making him understand the na-
ture of my discover}-. At last he was persuaded that I had
only discovered part of an ancient figure in stone, and that
'MM
An Entrance to the Great Hall of the North-west Palace. (Nimroud. )
neither the remains of Nimrod nor of any other personage
mentioned in the Koran had been disturbed. However, as
he requested me to discontinue my operations until the
excitement in the town had somewhat subsided, I returned
to Nimroud and dismissed the workmen, retaining only two
men to dig leisurely along the walls without giving cause for
further interference. I ascertained by the end of March the
existence of a second pair of winged human-headed lions,*
"* Entrance to Chamber B, Plan II. p. 42.
HI.]
HUMAN-HEADED LION.
53
differing from those previously discovered in form, the
human shape being continued to the waist, and being fur-
nished with human arms, as well as with the legs of the Hon.
In one hand each figure carried a goat or stag, and in the
other, which hung down by the side, a branch with three
flowers. They formed a northern entrance into the hall
or chamber, of which the human-headed lions previously
described formed the western portal. I completely un-
Human-headed Lion. (N.W Palace, Nimroud.)
covered the latter, and found them to be entire. They were
about twelve feet high and twelve feet long. The body and
limbs were admirably portrayed; the muscles and bones,
although strongly developed, to denote power and strength,
showed at the same time a correct knowledge of the anatomy
and form of the animal. Expanded wings sprung from the
shoulders and spread over the back ; a knotted girdle.
54 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
ending in tassels, encircled the loins. As these sculptures
were placed against walls forming a doorway or entrance,
and thus only one side of the body was to be seen, they were
carved partly in full and partly in rehef. The head and
fore-part, facing the chamber, were in full; the rest of the figure
was sculptured in high rehef; and that the spectator might
have botii a perfect firont and side view, it was furnished with
five legs ; four on the side forming the entrance, and an
additional leg in front The slab was covered, in all parts
not occupied by the image, with inscriptions in the cuneiform
character. Remains of colour could still be traced in the
eyes — the pupils being painted black, and the rest filled up
with a while pigment; but on no other parts of the sculpture.
These magnificent specimens of Assyrian art were in perfect
preservation, even to the most minute and delicate details
of the wings and ornaments.
I used to c6ntemplate for hours these mysterious emblems,
and muse over their intent and history. What more noble
forms could have ushered the people into the temple of their
gods? What more subUme images could have been bor-
rowed from nature, by men who sought, unaided by the
light of revealed religion, to embody their conception of the
wisdom and power of a Supreme Being ] They could find
no better type of intellect and knowledge than the head of
the man; of strength, than the body of the hon; of ubiquity,
than the wings of the bird. These winged human-headed
lions were not idle creations, the offspring of mere fancy;
their meaning was written upon them. They had awed and
instructed races which flourished 3000 years ago. Through
the portals which they guarded, kings, priests, and warriors
had borne sacrifices to their altars, long before the wisdom
of the East had penetrated to Greece, and had furnished its
mythology with symbols recognised of old by the Assyrian
votaries. They may have been buried, and their existence
may have been unknown, before the foundation of the eternal
city. For twenty-five centuries they had been hidden from
the eye of man, and they now stood forth once more in their
ancient majesty. But how changed was the scene around
them! The luxury and civilisation of a mighty nation had
III.] REFLECTIONS ON THE DISCOVERIES. 55
given place to the wretchedness and ignorance of a few half-
barbarous tribes. The wealth of temples, and the riches of
great cities, had been succeeded by ruins and shapeless heaps
of earth. Above the spacious hall in which they stood, the
plough had passed and the com now waved. Egypt has
monuments no less ancient and no less wonderful; but
they have stood forth for ages to testify her early power and
renown ; whilst those before me had but now appeared to
bear witness, in the words of the prophet, that once * the
Assyrian was a cedar in Lebanon with fair branches and
with a shadowing shroud of an high stature; and his top was
among the thick boughs .... his height was exalted above
all the trees of the field, and his boughs were multiplied,
and his branches became long, because of the multitude of
waters when he shot forth. All the fowls of heaven made
their nests in his boughs, and under his branches did all the
beasts of the fields bring forth their young, and under his
shadow dwelt all great nations ; * for now is * Nineveh a
desolation and dry like a wilderness, and flocks lie down in
the midst of her : all the beasts of the nations, both the
cormorant and bittern, lodge in the upper lintels of it ; their
voice sings in the windows ; and desolation is in the thres-
holds.»*
The entrance formed by the human-headed lions led into
a chamber, round which were sculptured winged figures of
deities or priests, such as I have already described. They
were in pairs facing one another, and separated by the sacred
tree. These bas-reliefs were inferior in execution and finish
to those previously discovered.t
During the month of March I received visits from the
principal Sheikhs of the Jebour Arabs, whose followers had
now partly crossed the Tigris, and were pasturing their flocks
in the neighbourhood of Nimroud, or cultivating patches of
millet on the banks of the river. The Jebours are a branch
of the ancient tribe of Obeid, and tiieir original pasture
grounds are on the banks of the KJiabour, from its junction
with the Euphrates, near the ancient Carchemish or Circe-
* Ezekiel, xxxi. 3, &c. ; Zephaniah, ii. 13 and 14.
t Chamber C, Plan II. p. 42.
56 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
sium, to its source at Ras-el-Ain. Having been suddenly-
attacked and plundered a year or two before by the Aneyza,
they had left their old haunts, and taken refuge in the dis-
tricts around Mosul. They were at this time divided into
three branches, under different Sheikhs. The names of the
three chiefs were Abd'rubbou, Mohammed-Emin, and Mo-
hammed-ed-Dagher. Although all three visited me at Nim-
roud, it was the first with whom I was best acquainted, and
who rendered me most assistance. I thought it necessary
to give to each a few small presents, such as a silk dress, or
an embroidered cloak, with a pair of capacious boots, as
in case of any fresh disturbances in the country it would
be as well to be on friendly terms with their tribe.
The middle of March in Mesopotamia is the brightest
epoch of spring. A new change had come over the face of
the plain of Nimroud. Its pasture lands, known as the
* Jaif,* are renowned for their rich and luxuriant herbage. In
times of quiet, the studs of the Pasha and of the Turkish
authorities, with the horses of the cavalry and of the in-
habitants of Mosul, are sent here to graze. Day by day
they now arrived in long hnes. The Shemutti and Jehesh
left their huts, and encamped on the greensward which sur-
rounded the villages. The plain, as far as the eye could
reach, was studded with the white pavilions of the Hytas,
and the black tents of the Arabs. Picketed around them
were innumerable horses in gay trappings, struggling to re-
lease themselves from the bonds which restrained them from
ranging over the green pastures.
Flowers of every hue enamelled the meadows ; not thinly
scattered over the grass, as in northern climes, but in such
thick and gathering clusters that the whole plain seemed a
patchwork of many colours. The dogs, as they returned from
hunting, issued from the long grass dyed red, yellow, or blue,
according to the flowers through which they had last forced
their way.
The villages of Naifa and Nimroud were deserted, and I
remained alone with Said (my host) and my servants. The
houses now began to swarm with vermin ; we could no
longer sleep under the .roofs, and it was time to follow the
III.] RESIDENCE: AMONG THE AfiABS, S7
example of the Arabs. I accordingly encamped on the edge
of a large pond on the outskirts of Nimroud. Said accom-
panied me ; and Salah, his young wife, a bri^t-eyed Arab
girl, built up his shed, and watched and niilked his diminu-
tive flock of sheep and goats.
I was surrounded by Arabs, who had either pitched their
tents, or, too poor to buy the black goat-hair cloth of
which they are made, had erected small huts of reeds and
dry grass.
In the evening, after the labour of the day, I often sat at
the door of my tent, and giving myself up to the full en-
joyment of that calm and repose which are imparted to the
senses by such scenes as these, gazed listlessly on the
varied groups before me. As the sun went down behind
the low hills which separate the river from the desert — even
their rocky sides had struggled to emulate the verdant cloth-
ing of the plain — its receding rays were gradually withdrawn,
like a transparent veil of Ught, from the landscape. Over
the pure, cloudless sky was the golden glow of the sunset.
The great mound threw its dark shadow far across the plain.
In the distance, and beyond the Zab, Keshaf, another vene-
rable ruin, rose indistinctly in the evening mist Still more
distant, and still more indistinct, was a solitary hill overlook*
ing the ancient city of Arbela. The Kurdish' mountains,
whose snowy summits cherished the dying sunbeams, yet
struggled with the twilight. The bleating of sheep and low-
ing of cattle, at first faint, became louder as the flocks re-
turned from their pastures, and wandered amongst the tents.
Girls hurried over the greensward to seek their fathers' cattle,
or crouched down to milk those which had returned alone to
their well-remembered folds. Some were coming firom the
river, bearing the replenished pitcher on their heads or
shoulders ; others, no less graceful in their form, and erect
in their carriage, were carrying the heavy load of long grass
which they had cut in the meadows. Sometimes a party
of horsemen might have been seen in the distance slowly
crossing the plain, the tufts of ostrich feathers which topped
their long spears showing darkly against the evening sky.
They would ride up to my tent and give me the usual salu-
58
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
tation, * Peace be with you, O Bey ! ' or * Allah Aienak, God
help you ! ' Then driving the end of their lances into the
ground, they would spring from their mares, and fasten their
halters to the still quivering weapons. Seating themselves
on the grass, they related deeds of war and plunder, or spe-
culated on the site of the tents of Sofuk, until the moon rose,
The Canal of Negoub and Map of Country around Nimroud.
when they vaulted into their saddles and took the way of the
desert.
The plain now glittered with innumerable fires. As the
night advanced, they vanished one by one, until the land-
scape was wrapped in darkness and in silence, only dis-
III.] TUNNEL OF NEGOUB, 59
turbed by the cry of the jackal and the barking of the Arab
dog.
Abd-ur-rahman rode to my tent one morning, and offered
to take me to a remarkable cutting in the rock, which he de-
scribed as the work of Nimrod, the Giant. The Arabs call
it * Negoub,* or The Hole. We were two hours in reaching
the place, as we hunted gazelles and hares by the way. A
tunnel through the rock opens by two low arched outlets,
upon the river. It is of considerable length, and is con-
tinued for about a mile by a deep channel, also cut in the
rock, but open at the top. I suspected at once that this
was an Assyrian work, and on examining the interior of the
tunnel, discovered a slab covered with cuneiform characters,
which had fallen from its place, and had been wedged in a
crevice. With much difficulty I ascertained that an inscrip-
tion had also been cut on the back of the tablet. From the
darkness of the place, I could scarcely copy even the few
characters which had resisted the wear of centuries. Some
days after, others' who had casually heard of my visit to
Negoub, and conjectured that some Assyrian remains might
have been found there, sent a party of workmen to the spot ;
who, finding the slab, broke it into pieces in their attempt to
displace it. This wanton destruction of the tablet is much
to be regretted. From the inscription, which I was able at
a subsequent period to restore, it appears to have been set
up by Sennacherib, to record the repair of the tunnel, which
had been originally excavated in the rock by his prede-
cessor, Sardanapalus, the builder of the north-west palace
at Nimroud.*
* Mr. Rawlinson, on the authority of Captain Jones (* Ancient Monar-
chies,' vol. i. p. 251 note, and vol. ii. p. 196), states, that the canal, of
which the tunnel of Negoub forms a part, was cut to supply Calah (the
city of which he believes Nimroud to mark the site) with mountain
water, and that it was carried to the eastern comer of the Nimroud ruins.
But this appears to me, from the difference of level, to be impossible.
The canal, of which the remains may be traced to the south of Nimroud,
was supplied by a small stream, the Shor Derreh, coming from the
north, and marked on Captain Jones's chart ; or from the Tigris, which
probably washed the foot of the mound when the canal was constructed.
6o NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
The tunnel of Negoub is undoubtedly a remarkable work.
Its object is doubtful. It may have led the waters of the Zab
into the surrounding country for irrigation; or it may have
been the termination of the great canal, which is still to be
traced by a double range of lofty mounds near the ruins of
Nimroud, and which may have united the Tigris with the
neighbouring river, and thus fertilised a large tract of land.
In either case, the level of the two rivers, as well as the face
of the country, must have changed considerably since the
period of its construction. At present Negoub is above the
Zab, except at the time of the highest floods in spring, and
then water is only found in the mouth of the tunnel ; all
other parts having been almost choked up with rubbish and
river deposits.
IV.] VISIT TO AL MATHER. 6l
CHAPTER IV.
Preparations for a journey to Al Hat her — Gathering of the caravan —
Leave Mosul — The desert — Flocks of camels — The Hcuidedeen Arabs —
An Arab repast — An eficampment — An Arab tribe moving — The tents
of Sofuk — Description of the Shammar Sheikh — His history — Sofuk's
harem and wives — His mare — Ride to Al Hat her — Arab guides — The
ruins of Al Hather — Return to Mosul — Murder of Nefris, and of
Sofuk.
The operations at Nimroud having been suspended until
permission to continue them could be received from Con-
stantinople, I thought the time opportune to visit Sofuk, the
Sheikh of the great Bedouin tribe of Shammar, which occupies
nearly the whole of Mesopotamia. He had lately left the
Khabour, and was now encamped near the western bank of
tlie Tigris, below its junction with the Zab, and consequently
not far from Nimroud. I had two objects in view in going to
his tents ; in the first place. I wished to obtain the friendship
of the chief of a powerful tribe of Bedouins, who would pro-
bably cross the river in the neighbourhood of the excavations
during the summer, and might indulge, to my cost, in their
plundering propensities; and, at the same time, I was anxious
to visit the remarkable ruins of Al Hather, which I had only
examined very hastily on a former journey.
Mr. Rassam (the British Vice-consul) and his wife, with
several native gentlemen of Mosul, Mussulmans and Chris-
tians, were induced to accompany me; and, as we issued
from the gates of the town, and assembled in the well-peopled
burying-ground opposite the Governor's palace, I found my-
self at the head of a formidable party. Our tents, lent to us
by the Pasha, with our provisions and necessary furniture,
were carried by a string of twelve camels. Mounted above
these loads, and on donkeys, was an army of camel-drivers,
62 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
tent-pitchers, and volunteers ready for all services. There
were, moreover, a few horsemen of the irregular cavalry,
the Cawasses, the attendants of the Mosul gentlemen, the
Mosul gentlemen themselves, and our own servants, all
armed to the teeth. Ali Eflfendi, chief of the Mosul branch
of the Omaree, or descendants of Omar, which had furnished
several Pashas to the province, was our principal Mussulman
friend. He was mounted on the Hedban, a well-known
white Arab, beautiful in form and pure in blood, but then of
great age. Close at his horse's heels followed a confidential
servant; who, perched on a pack-saddle, seemed to roll from
side to side on two small barrels, the use of which might
have been an enigma, had they not emitted a very strong
smell of raki, or native brandy. A Christian gentleman was
wrapped up in cloaks and furs, and appeared to dread the
cold, although the thermometer was at loo. The English
lady was equipped in riding-habit and hat. The two Eng-
lishmen, Mr. Ross and myself, wore a striking mixture of
European and Oriental raiments. Mosul ladies, wrapped
from head to foot in blue sheets, their faces concealed by
black horsehair sieves, had been dragged to the top of piles
of carpets and cushions, under which groaned their unfortu-
nate mules. Greyhounds in leashes were led by Arabs on
foot ; whilst others played with strange dogs, who followed
the caravan for change of air. The horsemen galloped
round and round, occasionally dashing into the centre of the
crowd, throwing their horses on their haunches when at full
speed, or discharging their guns and pistols into the air. A
small flag with British colours was fastened to the top of a
spear, and confided to a Cawass. Such was the motley cara-
van which left Mosul by the Bab el Top, where a crowd of
women had assembled to witness the procession.
We took the road to the ruins of the monastery of Mar
Elias, a place pf pilgrimage for the ChriBtians of Mosul, which
we passed after an hour's ride. Evening set in before we
could reach the desert, and we pitched our tents for the night
on a lawn near a deserted village, about nine miles firom the
town.
On the following morning we soon emerged from the low
IV.] VISIT TO THE SHAMMAR. . 63
limestone hills ; which, broken into a thousand rocky valleys,
form a barrier between the Tigris and the plains of Mesopo-
tamia. We now found ourselves in the desert, or rather wil-
derness ; for at this time of the year, nature could not dis-
close a more varied scene, or a more luxuriant vegetation.
We trod on an interminable carpet, figured by flowers of
every hue. Nor was water wanting; for the abundant rains
had given reservoirs to every hollow, and to every ravine.
Their contents, owing to the nature of the soil, were brackish,
but not unwholesome. Clusters of black tents were scat-
tered, and flocks of sheep and camels wandered, over the
plain. Those of our party who were well mounted urged
their horses through the meadows, pursuing the herds of
gazelles, or the wild boar, skulking in the long grass.
Although such scenes as these may be described, the exhil-
aration caused by tlie air of the desert in spring, and the
feeling of freedom arising from the contemplation of its
boundless expanse, must have been experienced before they
can be understood. The stranger, as well as the Arab, feels
the intoxication of the senses which they produce.
About mid-day we found ourselves in the midst of great
herds of camels. They belonged to the tribe of Haddedeen.
The sonorous whoop of the Arab herdsmen resounded from
all sides. A few horsemen were galloping about, driving
back the stragglers, and directing the march of the leaders
of the herd. Shortly after we came up with some families
moving to a new place of encampment, and at their head I
found my old antiquity hunter. Mormons. He no sooner per-
ceived us than he gave orders to those who followed him, and
of whom he was the chief, to pitch their tents. We were now
in the Wadi Ghusub, formed by a small salt stream forcing
its sluggish way through a dense mass of reeds and water
shrubs, firom which the valley has taken its name. About
fifteen tents having been raised, a sheep was slaughtered in
front of the one in which we sat ; large wooden bowls of
sour milk, and platters of fi-esh butter were placed before us;
fires of camel's dung were lighted ; decrepit old women blew
up the flames ; the men cut the carcase into small pieces, and
capacious cauldrons soon sent forth volumes of steam..
64 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
The sheep having been boiled, the Arabs pulled the frag-
ments out of the cauldron and laid them on the wooden
platters with their fingers. We helped ourselves after the
same fashion. The servants succeeded to the dishes, which
afterwards passed through the hands of the camel drivers
and tent pitchers ; and at last, denuded of all apparently
edible portions, reached a strong party of expectant Arabs.
The condition of the bones by the time they were delivered
to a crowd of hungry dogs, assembled on the occasion,
may easily be imagined.
We resumed our journey in the afternoon, preceded by
Mormous, who volunteered to accompany us. As we rode
over the plain, we fell in with the Sheikh of the Haddedeen
mounted on a fine mare, and followed by a large concourse
of Arabs, driving their beasts of burden loaded with tents
and furniture. He offered to conduct us to a branch of the
Shammar, whose encampment we could reach before even-
ing. We gladly accepted his offer, and he left his people to
ride with us.
We had been wandering to and firo in the desert, uncertain
as to the course we should pursue. The Sheikh now rode in
the direction of the Tigris. Before nightfall we came to a
large encampment, and recognised in its chief one Khalaf,
a Bedouin, who fi-equently came to Mosul, and whom Mr.
Rassam and myself had met on our previous journey to Al
Hather. He received us with hospitality ; sheep were imme-
diately slaughtered, and we dismounted at his tent Even his
wives, amongst whom was a remarkably pretty Arab girl, came
to us to gratify their curiosity by a minute examination of
the Frank lady. As the intimacy, which began to spring up,
was somewhat inconvenient, we directed our tents to be
pitched at a distance firom the encampment, by the side of
a small stream. It was one of those calm and pleasant
evenings, which in spring make a paradise of the desert
The breeze, bland and perfumed by the odour of flowers,
came gently over the plain. As the sun went down, count-
less camels and sheep wandered to the tents, and the
melancholy call of the herdsmen rose above the bleating of
the flocks. The Arabs led their prancing mares to the
IV.] ENCAMPMENT OF THE SHAMMAR. 65
water ; the colts, as they followed, played arid roUed on the
grass. I spread my carpet at a distance from the group
which had gathered round our encampment, to enjoy with-
out interruption the varied scene. Rassam, now in his
element, collected around him a knot of admiring Arabs,
unscrewed telescopes, exhibited various ingenious contri-
vances, and described the wonders of Europe, interrupted
by the exclamations of incredulous surprise, which his
marvellous stories elicited from the hearers. Ali EfFendi
and his Mussulman friends, who preferred other pleasures
and more definite excitement, hid themselves in the high
rushes, and handed round a small silver bowl containing
fragrant ruby-coloured spirits, which might have rejoiced even
the heart of Hafiz. The camel-drivers and servants hurried
over the lawn, tending their animals or preparing the evening
meal.
We had now reached the pasture-grounds of the Shammar,
and Sheikh Khalaf declared that Sofuk's tents could not be
far distant. A few days before they had been pitched
almost among the ruins of Al Hather ; but he had since left
them, and it was not known where he had encamped. We
started early in the morning, and took the direction pointed
out by Khalaf. Our view was bounded to the east by a
rising ground. When we reached its summit, we looked
down upon a plain, which appeared to swarm with moving
objects. We had come upon the main body of the Shammar.
The scene caused in me feelings of melancholy, for it recalled
many hours, perhaps unprofitably, though certainly happily
spent ; and many friends, some who now sighed in captivity
for the joyous freedom which those wandering hordes
enjoyed; others who had perished in its defence. We soon
found ourselves in the midst of wide-spreading flocks of
sheep and camels. As far as the eye could reach, to the
right, to the left, and in front, still the same moving crowd.
Long lines of asses and bullocks laden with black tents,
huge cauldrons and variegated carpets ; aged women and
men, no longer able to walk, tied on the heap of domestic
furniture; infants crammed into saddle-bags, their tiny heads
thrust through the narrow opening, balanced on the donkey's
F
66 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
back by kids or lambs tied on the opposite side ; girls
clothed only in the close-fitting Arab shirt, which displayed
rather than concealed their graceful forms ; mothers with
their children on their shoulders ; boys driving flocks of
lambs; horsemen armed with long tufted spears, scouring
the plain on their fleet mares ; riders urging their drome-
daries with short hooked sticks, and leading their high-bred
steeds by the halter; colts galloping amongst the throng; high-
bom ladies seated in the centre of huge wings, which extend
like those of a butterfly from each side of the camel's hump,
and are no less gaudy and variegated.* Such was the motley
crowd through which we had to wend our way for sevend
hours. Our appearance created a lively sensation; the
woipen checked our horses ; the horsemen assembled round
us, and rode by our side ; the children yelled and ran after
the Franks.
It was mid-day before we found a small party that had
stopped, and were pitching their tents. A young chestnut
mare belonging to the Sheikh, was one of the most beautiful
creatures I ever beheld. As she struggled to free herself
from the spear to which she was tied, she showed the light-
ness and elegance of the gazelle. Her limbs were in perfect
symmetry; her ears erect, slender, and transparent; her
nostrils high, dilated and deep red ; her neck gracefully
arched, and her mane and tail of the texture of silk. We all
involuntarily stopped to gaze at her. *Say Masha-Allah,'
exclaimed the owner, who, seeing not without pride, that I
admired her, feared die effect of an evil eye. ' That I will,'
answered I, * and with pleasure ; for, O Arab, you possess
the jewel of the tribe.' He brought us a bowl of camel's
milk, and directed us to the tents of Sofuk.
We had still two hours' ride before us, and when we
* These wings are formed by a light frame-work of cane, varying
from sixteen to twenty feet in lengdi, covered with parchment, and
ornamented, as is also the body and neck of the camel, with tassels and
fringes of worsted of every hue, and with strings of glass beads and
sheSs. The lady sits in the c6ntre in a kind of pavilion, covered with
gay carpets, by which she is shaded from the sun. This singular con-
trivance sways from side to side, and the motion is very disagreeable to
one not accustomed to it
iv.i
OUR RECEPTION BY SOFUK,
67
reached the encampment of the Shammar Sheikh, our horses,
as well as ourselves, were exhausted by the heat of the sun,
and the length of the day's journey. The tents were pitched
on abroad lawn in a deep ravine; they were scattered in every
direction, and amongst them rose the white pavilions of
some Turkish irregular cavalry. Ferhan, the son of Sofiik, and
a party of horsemen, rode out to meet us as we approached,
and led us to the tent of the chief, distinguished from the
rest by its size, and by the spears which were driven into the
ground at its entrance. Sofuk advanced to receive us ; he
Arab Tents.
was followed by about three hundred Arabs, including many
of the principal Sheikhs of the tribe. In person he was
short and corpulent, more like an Osmanli than an Arab ;
but his eye was bright, restless and intelligent, his features
regular, well formed and expressive. His dress differed but
in the quality of the materials from that of his followers.
68 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
A thick kerchief or * kefieh,' striped with red, yellow, and
blue, and fringed with long plaited cords, was thrown over
his head, and fell upon his shoulders. It was held in its
place, above the brow, by a band of spun camel's wool, tied
at intervals by silken threads of many colours. A long white
shirt, descending to the ankles, and a black and white cloak
over it, completed his attire.
He led Rassam and myself to the end of the tent, where
we seated ourselves on well-worn carpets. When all the
party had found places, the words of welcome, which had
been exchanged before we dismounted, were repeated.
* Peace be with you, O Bey! upon my head you are wel-
come : my house is your house,' exclaimed the Sheikh, ad-
dressing the stranger nearest to him. * Peace be with you,
O Sofuk! may God protect you!' was the answer, and similar
compliments were paid to every guest, and by every person,
present Whilst this ceremony, which took nearly half an
hour, was going on, I had leisure to examine those who had
assembled to meet us. Nearest to mewasFerhan, the Sheikh's
eldest son, a young man of handsome appearance and in-
telligent countenance, although the expression was neither
agreeable nor attractive. His dress resembled that of his
father ; but from beneath the kerchief thrown over his head
hung his long black tresses plaited into many tails. His
teeth were white as ivory, like those of most Arabs. Beyond
him sat a crowd of men of the most ferocious and forbidding
exterior — warriors who had passed their lives in war and
rapine, looking upon those who did not belong to their tribe
as natural enemies, and preferring their wild freedom to all
the riches of the earth.
Mrs. Rassam had been ushered into this crowded assem-
bly. The scrutinising glance, with which she was examined
from head to foot by all present, not being agreeable, we re-
quested that she might be taken to the tent of the women.
Sofuk called two black slaves, who led her to the harem,
scarcely a stone's throw distant.
The compliments having been at length finished, we con-
versed upon general topics. Coffee, highly drugged with
odoriferous herbs found in the desert, and with spices, a mix-
IV.] SOFUK'S HISTORY. 69
ture for which Sofuk was celebrated, was handed round be-
fore we retired to our own tents.
Sofuk's name was so well known in the desert, and he so
long played a conspicuous part in the politics of Mesopota-
mia, that a few words on his history may not be uninteresting.
Her was descended from the Sheikhs, who brought the tribe
from Nedjd in Arabia Proper to Mesopotamia. At the com-
mencement of his career he had shared the chiefship with his
uncle, after whose death he became the Sheikh of the Sham-
mar. He was long troublesome to the Turkish governors of
the provinces on the Tigris and Euphrates ; but gained the
confidence of the Porte by a spirited attack upon the camp of
Mohammed Ali Mirza, son of Feth Ali Shah, and governor of
Kirmanshah, when that prince was marching upon Bagh-
dad and Mosul. After this exploit, to which was mainly attri-
buted the safety of the Turkish cities, Sofuk was invested by
the Sultan as Sheikh of the Shammar. At times, however,
when he had to complain of ill-treatment from the Pasha of
Baghdad; or could not control those under him, his tribes were
accustomed to indulge their love of plunder, to sack villages
and pillage caravans. He thus became formidable to the
Turks, and was known as the King of the Desert When
Mehemet Reshid Pasha led his successful expedition into
Kurdistan and Mesopotamia, Sofuk was amongst the chiefs
whose power he sought to destroy. Knowing that it would
be useless to attempt it by force, he had recourse to strata-
gem : invited the Sheikh to his camp on the pretence of in-
vesting him with the customary robe of honour, and seiz-
ing him, sent him a prisoner to Constantinople. There he
remained some months, until,, in its turn deceived by his
promises, the Porte permitted him to return to his tribe. He
now sought to revenge himself for the treachery practised
upon him. From that time his Arabs had been the terror of
the Pashalics of Mosul and Baghdad, and had even carried
their depredations to the east of the Tigris. However,
Nejris, the son of Sofuk*s uncle, had recently appeared as
his rival, and many branches of the Shammar had declared
for the new Sheikh. This led to dissensions in the tribe ;
and, at the time of our visit, Sofuk, who had forfeited his
70 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
popularity by many acts of bad faith, was almost deserted by
the Arabs. In this dilemma he had applied to the Pasha of
Mosul, and had promised to serve the Porte and to control
the Bedouins, if he were assisted in re-establishing his autho-
rity. This state of things accounted for the presence of the
white tents of the Hytas in the midst of his encampment
His intercourse wiUi the Turkish authorities, who had to be
conciliated by adequate presen.s before assistance could be
expected from them, and the famine, which for the last two
years had prevailed in the countries surrounding the desert,
were not favourable to the domestic prosperity of Sofuk. The
wealth and display, for which he was once renowned amongst
the Bedouins, had disappeared. A few months before, he
had even sent to Mosul the silver ankle-rings of his favourite
wife — the last resource — to be exchanged for com. The
furred cloaks, and embroidered robes, which he once wore,
had shared the same fate, and had not been replaced. The
only carpet in his tent was the rag on which sat his principal
guests; the rest squatted on the grass, or on the bare ground.
He led the life of a pure Bedouin, from the commonest of
whom he was only distinguished by the extent of his female
establishment — always a weak point with the Sheikh. But
even in the days of his greatest prosperity, the meanest Arab
looked upon him as his equal, addressed him as * Sofuk,' and
seated himself unbidden at his side. The system of patri-
archal government, faithfully described by Burckhardt, still
exists, as it has done for 4000 years, in the desert
The usual Arab meal was brought to us soon after our
arrival — large wooden bowls and platters filled with boiled
fragments of mutton swimming in melted butter, and sour
milk. When we had eaten, Sofuk came to our tents and
remained with us the greater part of the day. He was de-
jected and sad. He bewailed his poverty, inveighed against
the Turks, to whom he attributed his ruin, and confessed,
with tears, that his tribe was fast deserting him. Whilst
conversing on these subjects, two Sheikhs rode into the en-
campment, and hearing that the chief was with us, they
fastened their high-bred mares at the door of our tent and
seated themselves on our carpets. They had been amongst
IV.] SOFUK'S HAREM. 71
the tribes to ascertain the feehng of the Shammar towards
Sofuk, of whom they were the devoted adherents. One was
a man of forty, blackened by long exposure to the desert sun,
and of a savage and sanguinary countenance. His com-
panion was a youth, whose features were so delicate and
feminine, and eyes so bright that he might have been taken
for a woman ; a profusion of black hair which fell, plaited
into numerous tresses, on his breast and shoulders, added to
his feminine appearance. An animated discussion took place
as to the desertion of the Nejm, a large branch of the Sham-
mar tribe. The young man's enthusiasm and devotedness
knew no bounds. He threw himself upon Sofuk, and cling-
ing to his neck covered his cheek and beard with kisses.
When the chief had disengaged himself, his follower seized
the edge of his garment, and sobbed violently as he held it
to his lips. * I entreat thee, O Sofuk ! ' he exclaimed, * say
but the word ; by thine eyes, by thy beard, by the Prophet,
order it, and this sword shall find the heart of Nejris, whe-
ther he escape into the farthest comer of the desert, or be
surrounded by all the warriors of the tribe.' But it was too
late, and Sofuk saw that his influence was fast declining.
I must endeavour to convey to the reader some idea of
the domestic establishment of a great Arab Sheikh. Sofuk,
at the time. of our visit, was the husband of three wives, who
were considered to have special claims to his afiection and
his constant protection; for it was one of Sofuk's weaknesses,
arising either from a desire to impress the Arabs with a no-
tion of his greatness and power, or from a partiality to the
first stage of married life, to take a new partner nearly every
month ; and at the end of that period to divorce her, and
marry her to one of his attendants. The happy man thus
lived in a continual honeymoon. Of the three ladies now
forming his harem, the chief was Amsha, a lady celebrated
in the song of the Arab of the desert for her beauty and
noble blood. She was a daughter of Hassan, Sheikh of the
Tai, a tribe tracing its origin from the remotest antiquity,
and one of whose chiefs, Hatem, her ancestor, is a hero of
Eastern romance. Sofuk had carried her away by force from
her father ; but had always treated her with great respect.
72 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
From her rank and beauty, she had earned the title of
*• Queen of the Desert/ Her form, traceable through the
thin shirt, the only garment which like other Arab women
she wore, was well proportioned and graceful. She was tall
in stature, and rather fair in complexion. Her features were
regular, and her eyes large, dark, and brilliant. She had un-
doubtedly claims to more than ordinary beauty; to the Arabs
she was perfection, for all the resources of their art had been
exhausted to complete what nature had begun. Her lips
were dyed deep blue, her eyebrows were continued in indigo
until they united over the nose, her cheeks and forehead were
spotted with beauty-marks, her eyelashes darkened by kohl ;
and on her legs and bosom could be seen the tattooed ends
of flowers and fanciful ornaments, which were carried in
festoons and network over her whole body. Hanging from
each ear, and reaching to her waist, was an enormous earring
of gold, terminating in a tablet of the same material, carved
and ornamented with four turquoises. Her nose was also
adorned with a prodigious gold ring, set with jewels, of such
ample dimensions that it covered her mouth, and had to be
removed when she ate. Ponderous rows of strung beads,
Assyrian cylinders, fragments of coral, agates, and parti-
coloured stones hung from her neck ; silver rings encircled
her wrists and ankles, making a loud jingling as she walked.
Over her blue shirt was thrown, when she issued from her
tent, a coarse striped cloak, and a common black kerchief
was bound loosely round her temples by a rope of twisted
cameFs hair.
Her manage combined, if the old song be true, the do-
mestic and the queenly, and was carried on with a nice ap-
preciation of economy. The immense sheet of black goat-
hair canvass, which formed the tent, was supported by twelve
or fourteen stout poles, and was completely open on one
side. Being entirely set apart for the women, it had no par-
titions, like the tent of the common Arab, who is obliged to
reserve a comer for the reception of his guests. Between
the centre poles were placed, upright and close to one
another, large goat-hair sacks, filled with rice, com, barley,
coffee, and other household stores ; their mouths being, of
IV.] so F UK'S HAREM. 73
course, upwards. Upon them were spread carpets and
cushions, on which Amsha rechned. Around her, squatted
on the ground, were some fifty handmaidens, tending the
wide cauldrons, baking bread on the iron plates heated over
the ashes, or shaking between them the skins suspended from
three stakes, and filled with milk to be thus churned into
butter. It is the privilege of the head wife to prepare in her
tent the dinner of the Sheikh's guests. Fires, lighted on all
sides, sent forth a cloud of smoke, which hung heavily under
the folds of the tenf, and would have long before dimmed
any eyes less bright than those of Amsha. As supplies were
asked for by the women, she lifted the comer of her carpet,
untied the mouths of the sacks, and distributed their con-
tents. Everything passed through her hands. To show her
authority and rank, she poured continually upon her attend-
ants a torrent of abuse, and honoured them with epithets of
which I may be excused attempting to give a translation ;
her vocabulary equalling, if not exceeding, in richness, that
of the highly educated lady of the city.* The combination
of the domestic and the queenly was thus complete. Her
children, three naked little urchins, black with sun and mud,
and adorned with long tails of plaited hair hanging from the
crown of their shaven heads, rolled in the ashes, or on the
grass.
Amsha, as I have obsen/ed, shared the affections, though
not the tent of Sofuk — for each establishment had a tent of
its own — with two other ladies ; Atouia, an Arab not much
inferior to her rival in personal appearance ; and Ferrah,
originally a Yezidi slave, who had no pretensions to beauty.
Amsha, however, always maintained her sway, and the others
could not sit, without her leave, in her presence. To her
alone were confided the keys of the larder — supposing Sofuk
to have had either keys or larder — and there was no appeal
fi-om her authority on all subjects of domestic economy.
• It may not perhaps be known that the fair inmate of the harem,
whom we picture to ourselves conversing with her lover in language
too delicate and refined to be expressed by anything but flowers, uses
ordinarily words which would shock the ears of even the most depraved
amongst us.
74 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
Mrs. Rassam was received with great ceremony by the
ladies. To show the rank and luxurious h abits of her husband,
Amsha offered her guest a glass of * eau sucre'e/ which Mrs.
Rassam, who is over nice, assured me she could not drink,
as it was mixed by a particularly dirty negro, in the absence
of a spoon, with his fingers, which he sucked continually
during the process.
In the evening Amsha and Ferrah returned Mrs. Ras-
sam's visit ; Sofuk having, however, first obtained a distinct
promise that they were to be received* in a tent from which
gentlemen were to be excluded. They were very inquisi-
tive, and their indiscreet curiosity could with difficulty be
satisfied.
Sofuk was the owner of a mare of matchless beauty, called,
as if the property of the tribe, the Shammeriyah. Her dam,
who died about ten years ago, was the celebrated Kubleh,
whose renown extended from the sources of the Khabour to
the end of the Arabian promontory, and the day of whose
death is an epoch from which the Arabs of Mesopotamia
date events concerning their tribe. Mohammed-Emin,
Sheikh of the Jebpurs, assured me that h§ had seen Sofuk
ride down the wild ass of the Sinjar on her back, and the
most marvellous stories are current in the desert of her fleet-
ness and powers of endurance. Sofuk esteemed her and
her daughter above all the riches of the tribe ; for her he
would have forfeited all his wealth, and even Amsha herself.
Owing to the visit of the irregular troops, the best horses of
the Sheikh and his followers were concealed in a secluded
ravine at some distance from the tents.
Al Hather was about eighteen miles from Sofuk's encamp-
ment He gave us two well-known horsemen to accompany
us to the ruins. Their names were Dathan and Abiram.
The former was a black slave, to whom the Sheikh had
given his liberty and a wife — ^two things, it may be observed,
which are in the desert perfectly consistent. He was the
most faithful and brave of all the adherents of Sofuk, and the
fame of his exploits had spread through the tribes of Arabia.
As we rode along, I endeavoured to obtain from him some
information concerning his people, but he would only speak
IV.] RUINS OF AL HATHER. 75
on one subject * Ya Bej/* said he, * the Arab only thinks
of two things, war and love : war, Ya Be>, every one under-
stands ; let us, therefore, talk of love.'
As we rode to Al Hather, we passed large bodies of the
Shammar moving with their tents, flocks, and families. On
all sides appeared the huge expanding wings of the ladies*
camel-saddles, looking, as they rose above the horizon, Uke
some stupendous butterfly skimming slowly over the plain.
. Dathan was known to all. As the horsemen drew near, they
dismounted and embraced him, kissing him, as is customary,
on both cheeks, and holding him by the hand until many
compUments had been exchanged.
A dark thunder-cloud rose behind the time-worn ruins of
Al Hather as we approached them. The sun, still throwing
its rays upon the walls, lighted up the yellow stones until they
shone like gold.t Mr. Ross and myself, accompanied by an
Arab, urged our horses onwards, that we might escape the
coming storm ; but it burst upon us in its fury ere we
reached the palace. The lightning played through the vast
buildings, the thunder re-echoed through the deserted halls,
and the hail compelled us to rein up our horses, and turn
our backs to the tempest It was a fit moment to enter
such ruins as these. They rose in solitary grandeiu: in the
midst of a desert, ' in media soUtudine positae,* as they stood
fifteen centuries before, when described by the Roman his-
torian.} On my previous visit, the first view I obtained of
Al Hather was perhaps no less striking. We had been wan-
dering for three days in the wilderness without seeing one
human habitation. On the fourth morning a thick mist
hung over the plain. We had given up the search, when the
vapoiurs were suddenly drawn up Uke a curtain, and we saw
the ruins before us. At that time within the walls were the
* *0 my Lord:' he so prefaced every sentence. The Shammar
Arabs pronounce the word Beg, which the Constantinopolitans soften
into Bey, Bej.
+ The rich golden tint of the limestone, of which the great monu-
ments of Syria are built, is known to every traveller m that country.
The ruins of Al Hather have the same bright colour ; they look as if
they had been steeped in the sunbeams.
X Ammianus Marcellinus, lib. xxv. cap. 8.
76 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
tents of some Shammar Arabs, but now as we crossed the
confused heaps of fragments, forming a circle round the city,
we saw that the place was tenantless. Flocks on a neigh-
bouring rising ground showed, however, that Bedouins were
not distant
We pitched our tents in the great court-yard, in front of
the palace, and near the entrance to the inner inclosure.
During the three days we remained amongst the ruins I had
ample time to take accurate measurements, and to make
plans of the various buildings still partly standing within the
walls. As Al Hather has already been described by others,
and as the information I was able to collect has been placed
before the public,* I need not detain the reader with a de-
tailed account of the place. Suffice it to mention, that the
walls of the city, flanked by numerous towers, form almost a
complete circle, in the centre of which rises the palace, an
edifice of great magnificence, solidly constructed of squared
stones, and elaborately sculptured with figures and ornaments.
It dates probably from the reign of one of the Sassanian
kings of Persia, certainly not prior to the Arsacian dynasty,
although the city itself was, I have little doubt, founded at a
very early period, being, like Palmyra, one of the great cara-
van stations, connecting the cities of Syria with those on the
banks of the Tigris. Some singular marks upon the stones,
which appear to be either builders' signs, or to have reference
to some religious or masonic observances, are also found in
most of the buildings of Sassanian origin in Persia, Babylonia,
and Susiana.
With the exception of occasional alarms in the night,
caused by thieves attempting to steal our horses, we were
not disturbed during our visit The Bedouins from the tents
in the neighbourhood brought us milk, butter, and sheep.
We drank the water of the river Thathar, which is brackish
but wholesome; and our servants and camel- drivers filled
during the day many baskets with truffles.
On our return we crossed the desert, reaching Wadi
* See Dr. Ross's Memoir in the Geographical Society's Journal, and
Dr. Ainsworth's Travels. A memoir on the place by me, accompanied
by plans, &c., was read before the Institute of British Architects.
IV.] MURDER OF NEJRIS AND SOFUK, 77
Ghusub the first night, and Mosul on the following morning.
Dathan and Abiram, who had both distinguished themselves
in recent forays, and had consequently accounts to settle
with the respectable merchants of the place, the balance
being very much against them, could not be prevailed upon
to enter the town, where they were generally known. We had
provided ourselves with two or three dresses of Damascus
silk, and we invested our guides with them as a mark of satis-
faction for their services. Dathan grinned a melancholy
smile as he received his reward. * Ya Bej,' he exclaimed, as
he turned his mare towards the desert : * may God give you
peace ! Wallah ! your camels shall be as the camels of the
Shammar. Be they laden with gold, they shall pass through
our tents, and our people shall not touch them.'
A year after our visit the career of Sofuk was brought to
its close. I have mentioned that Nejris, his rival, had ob-
tained the support of nearly the whole tribe of Shammar.
In a month from the time of our journey Sofuk found him-
self nearly alone. His relations and immediate adherents,
amongst whom were Dathan and Abiram, still pitched their
tents with him ; but he feared the attacks of his enemies, and
retreated for safety into the territory of Beder Khan Bey, to
the east of the Tigris, near Jezirah. He then sought the
support of Nejib Pasha of Baghdad, under whose authority
the Shammar were supposed to be, and having succeeded in
bringing back a large number of the Bedouins, proposed to
Nejris, that they should meet at his tents, forget their differ-
ences, and share equally the sheikhship of the tribe. The
unfortunate Nejris was induced by Ferhan, the son of Sofuk,
to enter the encampment of his rival, where he was perfi-
diously murdered, in violation of those laws of hospitality
which are so much respected by the Arabs. The Shammar
were amazed and disgusted by an act of treachery which
brought disgrace upon the tribe. They withdrew a second
time from Sofuk, and placed themselves under a new leader,
a relation of the murdered Sheikh. Sofuk again appealed to
Nejib Pasha, justifying his conduct by the dissensions which
would have led to constant disorders in Mesopotamia had
there still been rival candidates for the sheikhship. Nejib
78 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
pretended to be satisfied, and agreed to send out a body of
irregular troops to assist Sofuk in enforcing his authority
throughout the desert
The commander of the troops sent by Nejib was joyfully
received by Sofuk, who immediately marched against the
tribe. But he had scarcely^ left his tent, when he found that
he had fallen into a snare such as he had more than once set
for others. In a few hours after, his head was in the palace of
the Pasha of Baghdad.
Such was the end of one whose name will long be re-
membered in the wilds of Arabia; who, from his power and
wealtli, received the title of * the King of the Desert,' and
led the great tribe of Shammar from the banks of the Kha-
bour to the ruins of Babylon. The tale of the Arab will turn
for many years to come on the exploits and magnificence of
Sofuk.
v.] DISCOVERY OF SMALL OBJECTS. 79
CHAPTER V.
Discffvery of small objects — Pavement of the chambers — An Arab feast —
Arrival of Tahyar Pasha — Excavations continued — The summer at
Nimroud — A whirlwind — Further discoveries ofbas-rdiefs — Description
of the sculptures — Painted plaster — Receipt of viziricU letter — Excava-
tions at Kouyunjik — Fresh discoveries at Nimroud — Surprise of the
Arabs — First collection of sculptures sent to England — Visit from
Tahyar Pasha — Speculations of the Turks on the sculptures — Remove
to Mosul — Discovery of a building in a mound near Kouyunjik — New
chambers opened at Nimroud.
On my return to Mosul I hastened back to Nimroud.
During my absence little progress had been made in the
excavations^ as only two men had been employed in re-
moving the rubbish from the upper part of the chamber to
which the great human-headed Hons formed an .entrance.
The lions to the east of them* had, however, been com-
pletely imcovered; that to the right had fallen from its place,
and was sustained by the opposite sculpture. Between
them was a large pavement slab covered with cuneiform
characters.
In clearing the earth from this entrance, and from behind
the fallen lion, many ornaments in copper, two small ducks
in baked clay, and tablets of alabaster inscribed on both
sides with cuneiform characters, were discovered.t Amongst
the remains in copper were the head of a ram or bull J, se-
veral hands (the fingers closed and slightly bent), and a few
ornaments in the shape of flowers. The hands may have
served as a Casing to similar objects in baked clay, frequently
* Entrance </, Plan II. p. 42.
+ All these objects are now in the British Museum.
X This head probably belonged to a throne or seat.
8o NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
found amongst the ruins, and having the names, titles, and
genealogy of the King, inscribed upon them. The heads
of the ducks are turned upon the back, which bears an
inscription in cuneiform characters. Objects somewhat
similar have been found in Egypt.* The inscribed tablets
appear to have been built into the walls of sun-dried bricks,
and buried in the foundations, to record the building of the
edifice. The inscription upon them resembled that generally
found on the slabs in the N.W. palace, and which I have
called * the standard inscription of Nimroud.*
It is remarkable that whilst such parts of the great hall as
had been uncovered were paved with baked bricks, and the
smaller entrance to it with a large slab of alabaster, between
the two great lions there were only sun-dried bricks. In the
middle of this entrance, near the fore-part of the lions, were
a few square stones carefully placed. I expected to find
under them small figures or idols in clay, similar to those
discovered by M. Botta in the doorways at Khorsabad; but
I was disappointed.
As several of the principal Christian families of Mosul
were anxious to see the sculptures, whose fame had spread
over the town and province, I was desirous of gratifying
their curiosity before the heat of summer had rendered the
plain of Nimroud almost uninhabitable. An opportunity, at
the same time, presented itself of securing the good -will of
the Arab tribes encamped near the ruins, by preparing an
entertainment which might gratify all parties. The Christian
ladies, who had never before been out of sight of the walls
of their houses, were eager to see the wonders of Nimroud,
and availed themselves joyfully of the permission, with diffi-
culty extracted from their husbands, to leave their homes.
The French consul and his wife, and Mr. and Mrs. Rassam,
joined the party. On the day after their arrival I issued a
general invitation to all the Arabs of the district, men and
women.
White pavilions, borrowed from the Pasha, had been
* Similar ducks in stone and metal have been found in Assyrian ruins ;
they appear to have been used as weights.
v.] VISIT OF ABD'UR'RAHMAN. 8i
pitched near the river, on a broad lawn still carpeted with
flowers. These were for the ladies, and for the reception of
the Sheikhs. Black tents were provided for some of the
guests, for the attendants, and for the kitchen. A few
Arabs encamped around us to watch the horses, which were
picketed on all sides. An open space was left in the
centre of the group of tents for dancing, and for various
exhibitions provided for the entertainment of the company.
Early in the morning came Abd-ur-rahman, mounted on
a tall white mare. He had adorned himself with all the
finery he possessed. Over his keffieh or head-kerchief was
folded a white turban, edged with long fringes which fell
over his shoulders, and almost concealed his handsome
features. He wore a long robe of red silk and bright
yellow boots, an article of dress much prized by Arabs.
He was surrounded by horsemen carrying spears tipped
with tufts of ostrich feathers.
As the Sheikh of the Abou-Salman approached the tents
I rode out to meet him. A band of Kurdish musicians
advanced at the same time to do honour to the Arab chief.
As he drew near to the encampment, the horsemen, led by
Schloss, his nephew, urged their mares to the utmost of their
speed, and engaging in mimic war, filled the air with their
wild war-cry. Their shoutings were, however, almost
drowned by the Kurds, who belaboured their drums, and
blew into their pipes with redoubled energy. Sheikh Abd-
ur-rahman, having dismounted, seated himself with becoming
gravity on the sofa prepared for guests of his rank; whilst
his Arabs picketed their mares, fastening the halters to
spears driven into the ground.
The Abou-Salman were followed by the Shemutti and
Jehesh, who came with their women and children on foot,
except the Sheikhs, who rode on horseback. They also
chanted their peculiar war-cry as they advanced. When
they reached the tents, the chiefs placed themselves on the
divan, whilst the others seated themselves in a circle on the
green sward.
The wife and daughter of Abd-ur-rahman, mounted on
mares, and surrounded by their slaves and hand-maidens,
G
83 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
next appeared. They dismounted at the entrance of the
ladies* tents, where an abundant repast of sweetmeats,
halwa, parched peas, and lettuces had been prepared for
them.
Fourteen sheep had been roasted and boiled to feast the
crowd that had assembled. They were placed on large
wooden platters, which, after the men had satisfied them-
selves, were passed on to the women. The dinner having
been devoured to the last fragment, dancing succeeded.
Some scruples had to be conquered before the women
would join, as there were other tribes, besides their own,
present, and it is not according to Arab etiquette that the
women of one tribe should appear before the men of another
tribe ; and when at length, by the exertions of Mr. Hormuzd
Rassam, this difficulty was overcome, they made up different
sets. Those who did not take an active share in the amuse-
ments seated themselves on the grass, and formed a large
circle round the dancers. The Sheikhs remained on the
sofas and divans. The dance of the Arabs, the Debkb, as
it is called, resembles in some respects that of the Albanians,
and those who perform in it are scarcely less vehement in
their gestures, or less extravagant in their excitement, than
those wild mountaineers. They form a circle, holding one
another by the hand, and, moving slowly round at first, go
through a shuffling step with their feet, twisting their bodies
into various attitudes. As the ipusic quickens, their move-
ments are more active ; they stamp with their feet, yell their
war-cry, and jump as they hurry round the musicians. The
motions of the women are not without grace ; but as they
insist on wrapping themselves in their coarse cloaks before
they join in tiie dance, their forms, which the simple Arab
shirt so well displays, are entirely concealed.
When those who formed the Debk^ were completely ex-
hausted by their exertions, they joined the lookers-on, and
seated themselves on the ground. Two warriors of different
tribes, furnished with shields and naked scimitars, then
entered the circle, and went through the sword^lance.
Excited by tlie warlike notes of the drums and pipes, the
performers gradually warmed from play into earnest contest.
v.] ARAB FESTIVITIES. 83
The bystanders were at length obHged to interfere and to
deprive the combatants of their weapons, which were re-
placed by stout staves. With these they belaboured one
another unmercifully to the great enjoyment of the crowd.
On every successful hit, the tribe, to which the one who
dealt it belonged, set up their war-cry and shouts of applause,
whilst the women deafened us with the shrill ta/ilehl, a
noise made by a combined motion of the tongue, throat, and
hand vibrated rapidly over the mouth. When an Arab or a
Kurd hears this tahlehl of the women, he almost loses his
senses through excitement, and is ready to commit any
desperate act.
A party of Kurdish jesters from the mountains entertained
the Arabs with performances and imitations, more amusing
than refined. They were received with shouts of laughter.
The dances were kept up by the light of the moon, the
greater part of the night
On the following morning Abd-ur-rahman invited us to
his tents, and we were Entertained with renewed Debk^s
and sword-dances. The women, undisturbed by the pre-
sence of another tribe, entered more fully into the amuse-
ment, and danced with greater animation. The Sheikh in-
sisted upon my joining with him in leading off a dance, in
which we were followed by some five hundred warriors, and
Arab women.
The festivities lasted three days, and made the impression
I had anticipated. They earned me a great reputation and
no small respect, the Arabs long afterwards talking of their
reception and entertainment. When there was occasion for
their services, I found tlie value of the feeling towards me,
which a Uttle show of kindness to these ill-used people had
served to produce.
Hafiz Pasha, who had been appointed to succeed the last
governor, having received a more lucrative post, the province
was sold to Tahyar Pasha, who made his public entry into
Mosul early in May, followed by a large body of troops,
and by the Cadi, Mufti, Ulema, and principal inhabitants of
the town. The Mosuleeans had not been deceived by
the good report of his benevolence and justice which had
84 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
preceded him. He was a perfect specimen of the Turkish
gentleman of the old school, of whom few are now left in
Turkey; venerable in his appearance, bland and polished in
his manners, courteous to Europeans, and well informed on
subjects connected with the literature and history of his
country. I had been furnished with serviceable letters of
introduction to him ; he received me with every mark of
attention, and at once permitted me to continue the excava-
tions. As a matter of form, he named a Cawass, to super-
intend the work on his part. I willingly concurred in this
arr^gement, as it saved me from any further inconvenience
arismg out of reports that I was carrying away treasure ; for
which, it was still believed, I was successfully searching.
This officer's name was Ibrahim Agha. He had been many
years with Tahyar Pasha, and was a kind of favourite. He
served me during my residence in Assyria, and on my subse-
quent journey to Constantinople, with great fidelity; and,
as is very rarely the case with his fraternity, with great
honesty.
The support of Tahyar Pasha relieved me fi'om some of
my difficulties ; for there was no longer cause to fear any
interruption on the part of the authorities. But my means
were very limited, and my own resources did not enable me
to carry on the excavations as I wished. I returned, how-
ever, to Nimroud, and formed a small but effective body of
workmen, choosing those who had already proved themselves
equal to the work.
The heats of summer had now commenced, and it was no
longer possible to live under a white tent. The huts were
equally uninhabitable, and still swarmed with vermin. In
this dilemma I ordered a recess to be cut into the bank of the
river, where it rose perpendicularly from the water's edge.
By screening the front with reeds and boughs of trees, and
covering the whole with similar materials, a small room was
formed in which I livfed. I was much troubled, however,
with scorpions and other reptiles, which issued from the earth
forming the walls of my apartment ; and later in the summer
by the gnats and sandflies, which hovered on a calm night
over the river. Similar rooms were made for my servants.*
v.] VIOLENCE OF THE WHIRLWINDS, 85
They were the safest that could be invented, should the
Arabs take to stealing after dark. My horses were picketed
on the edge of the bank above, and the tents of my work-
men were pitched in a semicircle behind them.
The change to summer had been as sudden as that
which ushered in the spring. The verdure of the plain had
perished almost in a day. Hot winds, coming from the"
desert, had burnt up and carried away the shrubs; flights
of locusts, darkening the air, had destroyed the few patches
of cultivation, and had completed the havoc commenced by
the heat of the sun. The Abou-Salman Arabs, having struck
their black tents, were now living in ozailis, or sheds con-
structed of reeds and grass, along the banks of the river.
The Shemutti and Jehesh had returned to their villages, and
the plain presented the same naked and desolate aspect
that it wore in the month of November. The heat, however,
was now almost intolerable. Violent whirlwinds occasion-
ally swept over the face of the country. They could be seen
as they advanced from the desert, carrying along with them
clouds of sand and dust Almost utter darkness prevailed
during their passage, which lasted generally about an hour,
and nothing could resist their fury. On returning home
one afternoon after a tempest of this kind, I found no traces
of my dwellings ; they had been completely carried away.
Ponderous wooden frame-works had been borne over the
bank, and hurled some hundred yards distant; the tents
had disappeared, and my furniture was scattered over the
plain. When on the mound, my only secure place of refuge
was beneath the fallen lion, where I could defy the fury of
the whirlwind : the Arabs ceased from their work, and
crouched in the trenches, almost suffocated and blinded by
the dense cloud of fine dust and sand which nothing could
exclude.*
* Storms of this nature are frequent during the early part of summer
throughout Mesopotamia, Babylonia, and Susiana. It is difficult to
convey an idea of their violence. They appear suddenly and without
any previous sign, and seldom last above an hour. It was during one of
them that * the Tigris * steamer, under the command of Colonel Ches-
ney, was wrecked in the Euphrates ; and so darkened was the atmo-
phere that, although the vessel was within a short distance of the bank
86 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
Although the number of my workmen was small, the
excavations were carried on as actively as possible. The
two human-headed lions at the small entrance to the great
hall already described, led into another chamber, or to
sculptured walls forming an outward facing to the building.*
The slabs to the right and left had fallen from their original
position, and, with the exception of one, were broken. I
had some difficulty in raising the pieces from the ground.
As the face of the slabs was downwards, the sculpture had
been well preserved.
To the right was represented the king holding a bow in
one hand and two arrows in the other. He was followed J^y
his attendant eunuch, who bore a second bow and a quiver
for the king's use, and a mace, with a head in the form of
a rosette, which may have been one of the wooden clubs,
topped with iron, mentioned by Herodotus as a weapon used
by the Assyrians, or one of those staffs adorned with an apple,
a rose, a lily, or an eagle described by the same historian as
carried by the Babylonian s.t Standing before him were his
vizir and an eunuch, with their hands crossed before them,
a posture still assumed in the East as one of respect and
submission by inferiors in the presence of persons of rank.
It is interesting thus to trace the observance of the same
customs in the same countries, after the lapse of so many
centuries. In a bas-relief representing a similar subject
discovered in the S. W. ruins, the vizir raises his right hand
before the king — an attitude, apparently denoting homage,
in which dependants are seen on the later monuments of the
Achaemenian and Sassanian dynasties. Dejoces, who was
the successor of the Assyrian monarchs, permitted no one
to see him, except certain privileged individuals ; and the
person of the Persian king, as we learn from the story of
Esther, was considered so sacred, that even the queen, who
ventured before him without being bidden, was punished
with death, * except the king might hold out the golden
of the river, several persons who were in her are supposed to have lost
their lives from not knowing in what direction to swim.
* Wall D, Plan II. p. 42.
+ Herod, lib. vii. c. 68, and lib. i. c. 195.
v.] DESCRIPTION OF THE SCULPTURES,
87
sceptre that she might live.'* It might be expected, there-
fore, that in the Assyrian sculptures those who stand in the
royal presence would be portrayed in the humblest posture
of submission. These figures were about eight feet high;
the relief very low, and the ornaments rich and elaborate.
The bracelets, armlets, and weapons were all adorned with
the heads of horses, bulls, and
rams, the style of which would
not have been unworthy of the
exquisite chasing of the middle
ages ; colour still remained on
the hair, beard, and sandals.
The adjoining slab, forming
a wall at right angles with
these bas-reliefs, was of en-
ormous dimensions, but had
been broken in two pieces :
the upper part had fallen, the
lower was still standing in its
place. It was only after
many ineffectual attempts that
I succeeded in raising the fallen half sufficiently to see the
sculpture upon it. It was a winged giant, carrying the fir-
cone and square utensil, about sixteen and a half feet high
and in low relief ; in other respects similar to those already
described, except that it had four wings, two springing from
each shoulder, and almost completely encircling the figure.
On the opposite side of the entrance were also a vizir and
his attendant ; but they were followed by figures, differing
altogether in dress from those previously discovered, and ap-
parently representing not Assyrians, but people of another
race; some carrying presents or offerings, consisting of arm-
lets, bracelets, and ear-rings on trays ; others elevating their
clenched hands, probably in token of submission. They
were evidently captives and tribute-bearers from a con-
quered nation ushered into the presence of the monarch by
his minister. Amongst the objects of tribute were two
Handles of three Daggers carried in
the Girdle. (N. W. Palace, Nimroud.)
Herod, lil). i. c. 99.; Esther, iv. 11.
83 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
monkeys held by ropes ; one raising itself on its hind legs,
the other sitting on the shoulders of its keeper.* The
costume of these figures consisted of high boots turned up
at the toes, resembling those still in use in Turkey and
Persia ; conical caps, apparently formed by bands, or folds
of felt or linen; and loose shirts descending to the ankles
ornamented down the centre and at the bottom with fringes.
Winged human-headed Bull. (N. W. Palace, Nimroud.)
The figure with the monkeys was clothed in a short tunic,
scarcely reaching to the calf of the leg, and his hair was
simply bound up by a fillet. There were traces of black
paint on his face, but it may have been washed down from
the hair, as no remains of colour have been found on the face
of any other figure, although it is probable that the Assy-
* This bas-relief is in the British Museum.
v.] DISCOVERY OF WEIGHTS. 89
nans, like the Egyptians, may have denoted races, sex, and
orders of the priesthood by various tints.
To the south of the colossal lions, forming the principal
entrance * to the great hall, the wall was continued by an
eagle-headed figure resembling that on the opposite side.
Adjoining it was a comer-stone bearing the sacred tree.
Beyond, the slabs ceased altogether ; but I soon found that
they had only fallen from their places, and were lying on the
floor with their faces downwards, and that, although broken,
the sculptures upon them representing battles, sieges, and
other historical subjects, were, as far as it could be ascer-
tained by the examination of one or two, in admirable pre-
servation. The wall of sun-dried bricks, against which they
had stood, and of which they had formed the panelling, was
still distinctly visible to the height of twelve or fourteen feet
This wall served as my guide in digging onwards, to the dis-
tance of about one hundred feet.
The first sculpture discovered still standing in its original
position, was a winged human-headed bull carved out of
yellow limestone. On the previous day we had found
the human head belonging to the corresponding bull on the
opposite side of the entrance, which had fallen from its
place and was broken into several pieces. This head is now
in the British Musuem. I lifted the body with difficulty ;
and discovered under it sixteen copper lions, of admirable
execution, forming a regular series, diminishing in size from
the largest, which was above one foot in length, to the small-
est, which scarcely exceeded an inch. A ring was attached
to the back of some of them. When these lions were brought
to England and cleaned, it was found that upon them were
short inscriptions in the cuneiform character, and in cursive
Semitic or Phoenician letters. The cuneiform inscriptions
contain the name of Sennacherib, to whose reign consequently
these objects are to be referred, and specify the weight of
the lion, which is also stated in the Phoenician writing. In
addition, lines or notches on the side of the Hon correspond
with the number of manae mentioned in the inscriptions.
The largest lion now weighs nearly 39 lbs., and is believed to
♦ Entrance a. Chamber B, Plan II. p. 42.
90
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap
represent half a Babylonian talent; the smallest, loz. i5dwt,
probably equal to one mana.
Lronze Lion.
These copper lions may have formed a series of weights
kept in the palace as the royal standard for general refer-
ence. Weights similar in shape were used by the Egyptians,
Egyptian weighing Rings of Metal with Weights in the form of a seated Lion.
and are represented in a bas-relief from a tomb in which an
Egyptian is seen weighing rings of metal* Near the lions
* For a more complete account of the lion weights, and of other
weights in the shape of a duck, discovered in the ruins, see my * Nineveh
and Babylon ' (unabridged edition), pp. 600 and 601 and notes.
V. SIEGE OF A CITY. 91
were found fragments of an earthen vase, on which were
represented in relief two figures, with the wings and claws of
a bird, the breasts of a woman, and the tail of a scorpion.*
Beyond the entrance formed by the winged bulls the slabs
were still upright and entire. On the first was sculptured
a winged man carrying a branch with five flowers in his
raised right hand, and the usual square vessel in his left.
On his head he wore a garland adorned with three rosettes.
On each of the four following slabs were tw^o bas-reliefs,
divided by the usual standard inscription. The upper
bas-relief, on the first slab, represented a castle apparently
built on an island in a river. One of its towers was de-
fended by an armed man, on two others were women.
Three warriors, probably escaping from the enemy, were
swimming across the stream ; two of them supporting them-
selves on inflated skins, in the mode practised to this day by
the Arabs inhabiting the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates,
when they cross those rivers ; except that, in the bas-relief,
the swimmers were pictured as retaining in their mouths
the aperture through which the skin is filled with air, whilst
the modem Arab simply ties it up. The third, pierced by the
arrows discharged by two Assyrian warriors kneeling on the
opposite shore, was struggling without any support against the
current. Three rudely designed trees completed the back-
ground.
The upper compartment of the next slab represented the
siege of a city or castle by the Assyrians. The king,
followed by his shield-bearer and attendants, was seen dis-
charging an arrow against the enemy. A tower of wicker-work,
moving on wheels, and to which was attached a battering-
ram, apparently worked from the interior, had been drawn
up to the castle. This tower was occupied by two Assyrian
archers, and the ram had already dislodged several stones
from the walls. The besieged, apparently anticipating the fall
of their stronghold, were asking for quarter.
Beneath the two bas-reliefs just described was one subject.
The king, followed by his eunuchs and his chariot, from
* All these remains are now in the British Museum.
92 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
which he had dismounted, was receiving a line of prisoners
led before him by his vizir. Some bore objects of spoil or
tribute, such as vases, shawls, and elephants' tusks ; others
were bound together by ropes, and were driven forward by
Assyrian warriors with drawn swords.
The upper compartments of the third and fourth slabs con-
tained two hunting scenes. In one the king was represented
discharging an arrow against a lion springing upon his •
Battering Ram with movable Tower containing Warriors.
(N. W. Palace, Nimroud.)
chariot, whilst a second lion, mortally wounded, had fallen
beneath the feet of the horses. Two warriors with drawn
swords appeared to be running to the assistance of the
monarch. This bas-reHef from the knowledge of art dis-
played in the treatment and composition, the correct and
v.] HUNTING SCENES, 93
effective delineation of the men and animals, and the spirit
of the grouping, is one of the finest specimens yet discovered
of Assyrian sculpture, and forms an interesting object of
study and comparison in connection with the earliest speci-
mens of Greek art, which was probably founded on that of
Assyria. The rage of the fallen animal, who is struggling to
extricate the arrow from its neck, is admirably portrayed ;
whilst the majesty and power conveyed in the form of the
springing lion is worthy of a very high order of art. In the
other bas-relief the king in his chariot was seen piercing a
wild bull with a short sword : a second bull wounded by
arrows being beneath the horses. A horseman following the
chariot led a second horse, ready for the use of the king.
The animal represented in this sculpture was probably a
wild ox, once inhabiting the Assyrian plains, but long since
extinct, as neither tradition nor history records its existence
in this part of Asia. It may have roved through Assyria at
a very early period, and may have been exterminated when
an increasing population covered the face of the country
with cities and villages.* It is distinguished from the do-
mestic ox by a number of small marks covering the body,
and apparently intended to denote rough and shaggy hair,
and is represented with one horn, as horses are frequently
drawn with only two legs or one ear, because the Assyrian
sculptor did not attempt to give both in a side view of the
animal. Beneath these bas-reliefs was represented the king
on his return from the chase, pouring a libation, or drinking
out of the sacred cup, above the fallen lion and bull. His
* I have found no representation of this animal in any sculptures of
a later date than those of the N. W. palace of Nimroud, tlie earliest
Assyrian edifice with which we are acquainted. Had it inhabited the
plains of Mesopotamia in the time of Xenophon, he would probably
have described it when speaking of the wild animals of that country.
The wild ox is, however, mentioned in Deut. xiv. 5, amongst the animals
whose flesh may be eaten by the Jews. The * wild buU in a net ' is
also alluded to in Isaiah, li. 20. The Hebrew word is rendered * wild
bull ' in the Targums, and * oryx ' in the Vulgate : some, however,
think that it means a kind of antelope. (Gesenius, Lex. in voce.) ^The
Rev. Mr. Rawlinson believes the animal in the sculptures to represent
the aurochs, or European bison, which is slill found in the Caucasus.
(Ancient Monarchies, vol. ii. p. 131.)
94 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
attendants stood around him, and musicians celebrated, on
stringed instruments, his victories over the wild beasts of the
desert.*
The frequent representations in the Nineveh sculptures of
hunting scenes in which the king is the principal actor, is a
proof of the high estimation in which the chase was held by
the primitive inhabitants of Assyria. A conqueror and the
founder of an empire was, at the same time, a great hunter.
His courage, wisdom, and dexterity were as much shown in
encounters with wild animals as in martial exploits; he
rendered equal services to his subjects, whether he cleared
the country of beasts of prey, or repulsed an enemy. The
scriptural Nimrod, who laid the foundation of the Assyrian
monarchy, was * a mighty hunter before the Lord;* and the
Ninus of history and tradition, the builder of Nineveh, and
the greatest of the Assyrian kings, was as renowned for his
encounters with the lion and the leopard, as for his triumphs
over warlike nations. The Babylonians, as well as the As-
syrians, ornamented the walls of their temples and palaces
with pictures and sculptures representing the chase; and
similar subjects were introduced even in the embroideries of
garments. The Assyrians were probably also the first to
have those enclosed parks, or paradises, which were after-
wards maintained at so vast a cost by the Persian kings of
the Achaemenian and Sassanian dynasties. In these spacious
preserves wild animals of various kinds were kept for the
diversion of the king and of those who were privileged to join
with him in the chase. They contained lions, tigers, wild
boars, antelopes, and many varieties of birds. The sculp-
tures just described may represent the king hunting in one
of these royal paradises.t
The Assyrian, like the Persian, youths were probably
trained to the chase at an early age. Xenophon gives an
interesting account of the hunting expeditions of the Persians
in the time of Cyrus. The king was accompanied by half
♦ All the bas-reliefs here described are now in the British Museum.
+ A series of bas-reliefs subsequently discovered at Kouyunjik, and
now in the British Museum, represent the king hunting lions turned out
of cages in which they have been brought to the hunting grounds.
v.] VIZIRIAL LETTER, 95
his guard, each man being armed, as if he were going to
battle, with a bow, quiver, sword, shield, and two javelins,
— hunting being, as Xenophon declares, the truest method
of practising all such tilings as relate to war.* Such, it
would appear from the bas-reliefs, was also the practice
amongst the Assyrians, for the king is represented as ac-
companied by warriors fully equipped for the fight.
On the floor of the hall, near the sculptures just described,
were found remains of painted plaster still adhering to the
sun-dried bricks, which had formed the upper part of the
wall above the sculpttured slabs, and had fallen from their
places. The colours, particularly the blues and reds, were
still fresh and vivid when first discovered ; but on exposure
to the air they faded rapidly. The designs were elegant and
elaborate. It was found ahnost impossible to preserve any
portion of this very thin coating of plaster, which crumbled to
pieces when an attempt was made to move it.
About this time I received from Sir Stratford Canning the
vizirial letter, granting me official permission to continue
the excavations and to carry away such objects as might be
discovered. I was sleeping in the tent of Sheikh Abd-ur-
rahman, who had invited me to hunt gazelles with him before
dawn on the following morning, when an Arab messenger
awoke me. He was the bearer of letters from Mosul ; and
I read by the light of a small camel-dung fire, the document
which secured to the nation tlie records of Nineveh, and the
collection of the ancient monuments of Assyrian art which
aie now preserved in the British Museum.
The vizirial order was as comprehensive as could be
desired ; and having been granted on the departure of the
British ambassador for England, was the highest testimony
the Turkish government could give of their respect for the
character of Sir Stratford Canning, and of their appreciation
of the eminent services he had rendered them.
One of the difficulties, and not one of the least which had
to be encountered — the opposition of the local authorities
— was now completely removed. Still, however, money was
wanting, and, in the absence of the necessary means, ex-
* Cyrop. lib. i. c. 2.
95 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
tensive excavations could not be carried on. I hastened,
nevertheless, to communicate the letter of the Grand Vizir
to the Pasha, and to make arrangements for pursuing the
researches as eflfectually as possible.
Not having yet examined the great mound of Kouyunjik,
which was believed to mark the true site of Nineveh, I de-
termined to open trenches in it. I had not previously done
so, as from the vicinity of the ruins to Mosul the inhabitants
of the town would have been able to watch my movements,
and to cause me continual interruptions before the sanction
of the authorities had been obtained to my proceedings. A
small party of workmen having been organised, excavations
were commenced on the southern face, where the mound
was highest ; as sculptures, if any still existed, would pro-
bably be found in the best state of preservation under the
largest accumulation of rubbish. My researches, however,
were not then attended with much success. Some fragments of
sculpture and cuneiform inscriptions were discovered, which
enabled me to assert with confidence that the remains were
those of a building contemporary, or nearly so, with Khorsa-
bad, and consequently of a more recent epoch than the
most ancient palace of Nimroud. All the bricks dug out of
the ruins bore the name of the same king, but I could not
find any traces of his genealogy. After excavating for
about a month, I discontinued my researches until a better
opportunity might offer.
On my return to Nimroud, about thirty men, chiefly Arabs,
were employed to dig in the N. W. palace.
Beyond the five sculptured slabs last described, a comer-
stone with the sacred tree was discovered, which formed the
eastern end of a great hall, 154 feet in length, and only 33
feet in breadth. These proportions, the length so far ex-
ceeding the width, are peculiar to Assyrian interior archi-
tecture, and may probably be attributed to the difficulty
experienced in roofing over a larger span. Adjoining this
comer-stone was a winged human figure ; and then came a
slab, fourteen feet in length, with a kind of recess cut in it, in
which were four figures in relief. Two kings stood face to
face, their right hands raised in prayer or adoration. Between
v.] ^ F/i£S// DISCOVERIES. 97
them was the oft-recurring sacred tree, above which appeared
the emblem of the supreme deity of the Assyrians — ^a, human
figure to the waist, with the wings and tail of a bird, enclosed
in a circle, — which was adopted by the Persians, and repre-
sents Ormuzd, or the great God of the 2^roastian system,
on the mpnuments of Persepolis. In the right hand of this
figure was a ring. The kings, who were either difierent
monarchs, or more probably but a double representation of
the same, appeared to be attired for the performance of some
religious ceremony. Their waists were encircled by knotted
bands, the ends of which fell almost to their feet Around
their necks were suspended certain mystic emblems, such
as a cross, a star, and the homed cap worn by the human-
headed lions, and in their hands they carried a kind of mace,
terminating in a disk or globe. Each king was followed by
a winged deity, or priest, with the fir-cone and basket*
To the left of this slab was a winged figure similar to that
on the right, and a second comer-stone, with the sacred tree,
completed the eastern end of the hall. Part of both the
winged figures adjoining the centre slab, as well as the
lower part of that slab, which advanced beyond the sculpture,
had been purposely defaced, and still bore the marks of the
chisel
Subsequent excavations disclosed in front of the bas-
relief of the two kings, a slab of alabaster, 10 feet by 8, and
about 2 feet thick, cut into steps or gradines on the side
facing the grand entrance, and covered on both sides with
inscriptions. On raising it, a process of considerable
difficulty from its great weight and size, I found beneath a
few pieces of gold-leaf and some fragments of bone, which
crumbled into dust as soon as exposed to the air. This
great slab may have been used for sacrificial purposes, for,
in a comer of the same part of the chamber, were two
square stones, slightly hollowed in the centre, and round the
slab itself was a conduit in alabaster, apparently intended
to carry off* some fluid, perhaps the blood of the sacrifice.
On the first slab of the northern wall, adjoining the
comer-stone, was a human figure with four wings ; the
* This bas-relief is now in the British Museum.
98 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
right hand raised, and . the left holding a mace. Beyond
were two human-headed lions, forming a fourth entrance to
the great hall, and corresponding with those on the same
sidS ; * from which, however, they differed somewhat in form,
the hands being joined in front instead of bearing an animal.
They, also, led to an outer wall, on which was sculptured a
procession of figures, similarly clothed to those adjoining the
other entrance, and bearing tribute or spoil The comer
was likewise formed by a colossal winged figure, which was
connected with the corresponding sculpture by four or more
winged human-headed bulls and lions, of enormous pro-
portions. Two of these gigantic sculptures had fallen on
their faces and were broken in several pieces. This assem-
blage of winged human-headed lions and bulls appears to
have formed the grand entrance into the palace, and must
have been truly magnificentt
As the edge of a ravine or gulley had now been reached,
the workmen were directed to resume excavations between
the yellow bulls, which formed the entrance into a further
chamber. % This room, the
walls of which had been
partly destroyed, was pa-
nelled with bas-reliefs re-
Sacred Emblems suspended round the neck of ^ , . ^ . o
the King. (N. w. Palace, Nimroud.) deities facing oue another,
and separated by the sacred tree, except on the east side,
where a king stood between a pair of these mythic figures.
Around the monarch's neck were suspended the five sacred
emblems. They consist of a star, a kind of Maltese cross, a
half-moon, a bident, and a horned cap similar to that worn
by the human-headed bulls, and are constantly found on
Assyrian monuments. §
* Entrance c. Chamber B, Plan II. p. 42.
+ This appears to have been the usual mode of ornamenting the
principal entrances and fa9ades of the Assyrian palaces. Similar
groups of winged human- headed bulls and colossal figures were
discovered at Kouyunjik and Khorsabad. (See * Nineveh and Babylon,'
abridged edition, chap, ii.)
:J: Chamber F, Plan II. p. 42.
§ It is worthy of remark, that, with the exception of the homed cap,
these symbols are found on the sacred monuments of India. It is
v.] ORNAMENTAL BAS-RELIEFS. 99
An entrance, formed by four slabs, two with bas-reliefs of
human figures carrjing a mystic flower,* led me into a new
chamber, remarkable for the elaborate and careful finish of
its sculptures. I uncovered the northern wall, and the
eastern as far as a second entrance, f
The northern end of the chamber was occupied by one
group, the principal figure in which was that of the king,
seated on a throne or stool, holding in his right hand a cup,
and resting his left upon his knee. In front of the monarch
stood an eunuch, raising with one hand a fan, and holding
in the other the cover or stand of the cup from which the
king was drinking or pouring a libation. Over the shoulder
of his attendant was thrown an embroidered towel, resembling
that still presented by servants in the East to one who has
drunk, or performed his ablutions. He was followed by
a winged figure with the fir-cone and basket Behind the
king were two eunuchs bearing his arms, and a second
winged figure similar to that in front of the throne. The
whole group probably represented the celebration, after a
great victory, of some religious ceremony, in which the pre-
siding divinities of Assyria, or priests assuming their form,
ministered to the king. This very fine bas-relief, which is
now in the British Museum, was remarkable for the extreme
delicacy and beauty of the details and its extraordinary
preservation. The robes of the monarch and those of his
attendants were covered with the most elaborate designs
slightly graven in the alabaster, and which, no doubt, had
been originally painted. In the centre of his breast were
represented two kings in act of adoration before the em-
blem of the supreme God. Around were figures of winged
deities, and the king performing different religious cere-
curious that on these monuments they should also be accompanied by the
sacred bull. According to Sir Henry Rawlinson, the eight-rayed sun
or star (sometimes represented with six rays) is the emblem of Gula, the
Sun goddess ; the crescent, the emblem of Sin, the Moon god ; the four-
rayed star, or rather cross, the emblem of Shamas, the Sun god ; the
homed cap the emblem of the King's guardian genius; and the bident
sometimes represented with three prongs, the emblem of Iva, the god of
the Atmosphere. (Rawlinson's * Ancient Monarchies,' ii. p. 703.)
♦ Entrance «, Chamber F, Plan II. p. 42.
+ Entrance ^, Chamber G, Plan II. p. 42.
H 2
loo NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
monies. Borders of similar groups, including various forms
of animals and monsters, winged horses, gryphons, and
sphinxes, adorned the front, and were carried round the
skirts, of the dress. The embroideries on the garments of
the priests and eunuchs were of the same kind and equally
Ornament on the Dress of Eunuchs.
elaborate. They consisted chiefly of men struggling with
winged monsters, ostriches standing before the sacred tree,
and numerous elegant devices, in which the seven-petalled
flower was always the most conspicuous.
Ornament on the Robe of King.
These ornaments were probably intended to represent em-
broideries on silk, linen, or woollen stuffs, in the manufacture
and dyeing of which the Assyrians had obtained so great
a perfection that the beauty of their garments was still re-
nowned many centuries after the fall of the empire. Amongst
those who traded * in blue clothes and embroidered work '
D/i£SS OF THE KIXG.
lOI
v.]
with Tyre were the merchants of Ashur, or Assyria , aiul
Achan confessed to Joshua that ' when he saw among the
spoils a goodly Babylonish garment and
two hundred shekels of silver, and a
wedge of gold of fifty shekels* weight, he
coveted and took them.' * Robes such
as are seen in these sculptures may have
been * the dyed attire and embroidered
work' so frequently mentioned in the
Bible as the garments of princes and the
most costly gifts of kings. The orna-
ments and figures upon them may either
have been dyed, woven in the loom, or
embroidered with the needle, like * the
prey of divers colours of neetUework, of
divers colours of needlework on both
sides/ 1
In the bas-relief I am describing, the
dress of the king consisted of a long
flowing garment or gown, such as is stifl
worn by men in the East, edged with
fringes and tassels descending to his
ankles, and confined at the waist by a
girdle. Over this robe a kind of cloak,
similarly ornamented and open in front, appears to have been
thrown. From his shoulders fell a cape, or hood, also
adorned with tassels, and with two long ribbons or lappets.
He wore the conical mitre, or tiara, which distinguishes the
monarch in Assyrian bas-reliefs, and appears to have been
reserved for him alone. It is impossible to determine from
the sculptures the nature of the material of which it was
made, but it may be conjectured that it consisted of bands
or folds of linen or silk. It was embroidered with flowers
and other ornaments, and was surmounted by a small cone or
pointj Around the neck of the king was a necklace. He
* Ezekiel, xxvii. 24 ; Joshua, vii. 21.
+ Judges, V. 30. We learn from Pliny (lib. viii. c. 48), tliat gold
threads were introduced into the Assyrian woof of many hues.
X The head-dress of the Persian monarchs, called the *cidaris,'
appears to have resembled the Phrygian bonnet, or the French Cap of
Ornament on the Kobe of
Winged Figure.
I02
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
wore earings, and his arms, which were bare from a little
above the elbow, were encircled by armlets and bracelets
remarkable for the beauty of their forms.
The clasps were in the shape of the
heads of animals, and the centre was
ornamented with stars and rosettes,
probably inlaid with precious stones.*
His beard was elaborately plaited, and
his hair, which fell in ringlets on his
shoulders, may have been partly arti-
ficial like that of the Persian monarchs,
who, according to Xenophon,t wore a
wig. Both the hair and beard were pro-
bably dyed, and the eyes blackened with
some preparation resembling the kohl
or surma still used by persons of both sexes in the East.
His sandals covered the back part of the foot, leaving the
fore part exposed, and were fastened by bands crossing the
Head-Dress of the King.
•N.W. Palace, Nimroud.)
\.
/\
A
H
S^
The King's Sandal.
(N. W. Palace, Nimroud.)
The King's Footstool.
(N. W. Palace, Nimroud.)
instep and passing round the great toe. The soles appear
to have been of wood or thick leather.
The eunuchs and winged figures wore robes and orna*
ments similar in most respects to those of the king. The
Liberty. That worn by Darius was of blue and white, or purple and
white. It is probable that the one worn by the Assyrian king was of
two or more colours. (Quint. Curt. lib. iii. ch. 3,- and lib. vi. ch. 6. )
* The dress of the Assyrian king appears to have been similar to
that of his successors in the empire of the East. Xenophon describes
Astyages as clothed in a purple coat and rich habit, with necklaces
round his neck and bracelets on his arms. (Cyrop. lib. i. ch. 3. ) Darius
wore a tunic of white and purple, embroidered robes, golden girdle, and
sword adorned with jewels. (Quint. Curt. lib. iii. c. 3. )
+ Cyrop. lib. i. c. 3.
v.]
ORNAMENTAL BAS-RELIEFS.
103
eunuchs, however, had no other head-dress than the carefully-
curled ringlets.
The arms, carried by the eunuchs for their own use, as
well as for that of the king, were richly ornamented with the
heads of lions : the beaks of eagles held the strings of their
bows, and their quivers were covered with groups of human
figures and animals. The king's throne and his footstool
were in keeping with the rest of the details. The throne or
End of a Sword Sheath.
(N. W. Palace, Nimroud.)
The King's Throne.
(N. W. Palace, Nimroud.)
rather stool, for it had neither back nor arms, was tastefully
carved, and adorned with the heads of rams ; the legs of the
footstool terminated in lions' paws. They may have been of
wood or copper, inlaid with ivory and other precious materials,
or of solid gold, like the tables and couches in the temple of
Belus at Babylon.*
The figures in these fine bas-reliefs were about eight feet
high. They were in an extraordinary state of preservation,
and seemed as if they had just come from the hands of the
sculptor, the most delicate chasings being still distinct, and
the outline retaining all its original sharpness. f On the
* A copper or bronze throne and footstool, restored from fragments
subsequently discovered at Nimroud, are now in the British Museum.
+ They are now in the British Museum ; but unfortunately, owing to
the extreme neglect shown in their transport to this country, they have
been much injured.
104 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
other slabs forming the walls of this chamber were alternate
groups, representing the king holding his bow in one hand,
and two arrows in the other, standing between winged
figures ; and the king also erect, raising the sacred cup, and
attended by eunuchs. The details in these sculptures were
similar in character to those already described. They
furnished, however, many new and interesting groups ;
such as the combats of winged figures with monsters of
various kinds, scenes of the chase, goats and bulls kneeling
before the sacred tree, and the king performing religious
ceremonies.
The king represented in these finely preserved and ela-
borate sculptures was undoubtedly the builder of the palace
or temple which I was exploring ; and his name had been
found in every inscription hitherto discovered amongst its
ruins. It was the same image, too, which occurred in other
bas-reliefs, in the same edifice. The Assyrian form of this
name, according to some interpretations of the cuneiform
characters in which it is written, appears to approach so nearly
to that of the monarch, whose name has been handed down
to .us by the Greeks, that I shall call him * Sardanapalus.* A
name very similar to it appears, however, to have been borne
by a later Assyrian king, and it may therefore be doubtful to
which of the two the traditionary history recorded by the
Greeks may apply.*
The Arabs marvelled at these strange figures. As each
head was uncovered they showed their amazement by ex-
travagant gestures, or exclamations of surprise. If it were a
bearded man, they concluded at once that it was an idol or
an evil spirit, and cursed or spat upon it. If an eunuch,
they declared that it wa^ the likeness of a beautiful girl,
and kissed or patted the cheek. They soon felt as much
interest as I did in the discoveries, and worked with renewed
ardour when their curiosity was excited by the appearance of
* At one time Sir Henry Rawlinson read the name of the Nimroud
king as Asshur-idanni-pal ; later, as Asshur-izzir-pal. According to Dr.
Hincks it is Asshur-yuzhur-bal ; according to M. Oppert, Assur-iddanna-
palla. Mr. Rawlinson (* Ancient Monarchies') accepts his brother's first
reading.
v.] TRANSPORT OF THE SCULPTURES. 105
a fresh sculpture. On such occasions, stripping themselves
almost naked, throwing the kerchief from their heads, and
letting their matted hair stream in the wind, they would rush
like madmen into the trenches to cany off the baskets of
earth, shouting, at the same time, the war-cry of their tribe.
Passing through an entrance formed by the usual winged
figures, I reached a further chamber panelled by slabs, on
which was sculptured the king, raising a richly ornamented
cup and standing between two divinities wearing fillets
adorned with rosettes round their temples.*
I quitted this chamber, after uncovering the upper part of
four or five bas-reliefs ; and returning to the western wall of
that previously explored, discovered another pair of human-
headed Hons, similar to, but smaller than, those forming the
western entrance to the great hall. The accumulation of
earth and rubbish above this part of the ruins was very con-
siderable, and it is not improloable that it was owing to this
that the sculptures, which were in the most perfect preserva-
tion, had been so completely guarded from injury.
I was now anxious to send to Baghdad and Busrah, for
transport to Bombay or England, such sculptures as I could
move with the means at my disposal. Major Rawlinson had
obligingly proposed that, for this purpose, the small steamer
belonging to the East Indian Government, and kept on the
lower part of the Tigris, should be sent up to Nimroud, and
I expected the most valuable assistance, both in removing
the slabs and in forming plans for future excavations, from
her able commander, Captain Jones. The * Euphrates,* one
of the two vessels originally constructed for the navigation of
the rivers of Mesopotamia, had some years before succeeded
in reaching the tomb of Sultan Abd- Allah, a few miles below
Nimroud. Impediments, not however more serious than
those she had already surmounted, occurring in this part of
the bed of the stream, she returned to Baghdad. A vessel,
even of her size, and with engines of the same power, could
have reached, I have little doubt, the bund or dam of the
Awai, which would probably have been a barrier to a further
* Chamber H, Plan. II. p. 42.
io6 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
ascent of the Tigris. It was found, however, that the
machinery of the * Nitocris,' the vessel now on the station, was
either too much out of repair, or not sufficiently powerful to
carry the vessel over the rapids, which occur in the river
above Baghdad. After ascending some miles above Tekrit
the attempt was given up, and she turned back.
Without proper materials it was impossible to move the
colossal lions, or even any entire slab. The ropes of the
country were so weak and ill-made that they could not sup-
port any considerable weight I determined, therefore, to
saw the slabs containing double bas-reliefs into two pieces,
and to lighten them as much as possible by cutting from the
back. As the inscriptions were all exactly the same, being
repetitions of the standard inscription, I did not consider it
necessary to preserve them, as they added to the weight
With the help of wooden levers, and by digging away the
wall of sun-dried bricks, I was able to move the sculptures
into the centre of the trenches, where they were reduced
to the requisite size. They were then packed in felt in
wooden cases, and transported from the mound upon some
rude buffalo carts belonging to the Pasha, to the river, where
they were placed upon a raft constructed of inflated sheep
skins and beams of poplar wood. They were floated down
the Tigris as far as Baghdad, were there transferred to boats
of the country, and reached Busrah in the month of August
They were then shipped for Bombay, from whence they were
transported to England round the Cape of Good Hope.
The sculptures sent home on this occasion formed the first
Assyrian collection exhibited to the public in the British
Museum.
Whilst I was moving these bas-reliefs, Tahyar Pasha
visited me at Nimroud. He was accompanied, for his better
security, by a large body of regular and irregular troops, and
three guns. His Diwan Effendesi, seal-bearer, and all the
dignitaries of his household, were also with him. I enter-
tained this large company for two days. The Pasha's tents
were pitched on an island in the river near my shed. He
examined the ruins, and expressed no less wonder at the
sculp tiures than the Arabs ; nor were his conjectures as to
v.] VISIT OF THE PASHA, 107
their origin and history, and the nature of the subjects
represented, much more rational than those of the sons of
the desert. The colossal human-headed lions terrified, as
well as amazed, his Osmanli followers. * La Illahi il Allah *
(there is no God but God) was echoed from all sides.
' These are the idols of the infidels,* said one, more knowing
than the rest. * I saw many such when I was in ItaHa with
Reshid Pasha, the ambassador. Wallah ! they have them
in all the churches, and the Papas (priests) kneel and bum
candles before them.' * No, my lamb,' exclaimed a more
aged and experienced Turk. * I have seen the images of
the infidels in the churches of Beyoglu (Pera) ; they are
dressed in many colours ; and although some of them have
wings, none have a dog's body and a tail; these are the
works of the Jin, whom the holy Solomon, peace be upon
him ! reduced to obedience and imprisoned under his seal'
' I have seen something like them in your apothecaries' and
barbers' shops,' said I, alluding to the well-known figure,
half woman and half Hon, which is met with so frequently
in the bazaars of Constantinople. *Istafer Allah' (God
forbid!), piously ejaculated the Pasha; *that is a sacred
emblem of which true believers speak with reverence, and
not the handiwork of infidels.' * There is no infidel Hving,'
exclaimed an engineer, who was looked up to as an authority
on these subjects, * either in Frangistan or in Yenghi Dunia
(America), who could make anything like that ; they are the
work of the Majus (Magi), and are to be sent to England to
form a gateway to the palace of the Queen.' * May God
curse all infidels and their works ! ' observed the cadi's
deputy, who accompanied the Pasha ; * what comes from
their hands is of Satan : it has pleased the Almighty to let
them be more powerful and ingenious than the true believers
in this world, that their punishment and the reward of the
faithful may be greater in the next'
The heat had now become so intense that my health began
to suffer from continued exposure to the sun, and from the
labour entailed upon me by the excavatidns. In the trenches,
where I daily passed many hours superintending the work-
men, drawing the sculptures, and copying the inscriptions,
io8 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
the thermometer generally ranged from 112° to 115° in the
shade, and on one or two occasions even reached 117^ Hot
winds swept like blasts from a furnace over the desert during
the day, and drove away sleep at night I resolved, there-
fore, to take refuge in the sardaubs or cellars of Mosul; and,
in order not to lose time, to try further excavations in the
Mound of KouyunjiL Leaving a superintendent, and a few
guards to watch over the uncovered sculptures at Nimroud,
I rode to the town.
The houses of Baghdad and Mosul are provided with
underground apartments called * sardaubs,* in which the in-
habitants pass the day during the summer months. They
are generally ill lighted, and the air is close and frequently
unwholesome : still they offer a welcome retreat during the
hot weather, when the extreme heat renders it almost im-
possible to sit in a room. At sunset the people emerge from
these subterranean chambers, and congregate on the flat
roofs, where they spread their carpets, eat their evening
meal, and pass the night.
After many fruitless inquiries after the bas-relief described
by Rich * as having been discovered in one of the mounds
forming the large quadrangle in which are included Nebbi
Yunus and Kouyunjik, I met with an aged stone-cutter, who
declared that he had not only been present when the sculp-
ture was found, but that he had been employed to break it
up. He pointed out the spot, in the northern line of ruins,
and I at once commenced excavations. The workmen were
not long in coming upon fragments of sculptured alabaster,
and after two or three days' labour, an entrance was dis-
covered which had been formed by two winged figures.
They had, however, been purposely destroyed. The legs
and the lower part of the tunic were alone preserved. The
proportions were colossal, and the relief higher than that of
any sculpture hitherto discovered in Assyria. This entrance
led into a chamber, the lower part of the walls of which was
panelled with limestone slabs about five feet high and three
broad. There were" marks of the chisel upon them all as if
something had been effaced ; but from their size it appeared
* Residence in Kurdistan and Nineveh, vol. ii. p. 39.
v.] FRESH DISCOVERIES. 109
doubtful whether figures had ever been sculptured upon them.
The upper part of the walls was of sun-dried bricks. In the
rubbish filling up the chamber were discovered numerous
baked bricks, bearing the name of Sennacherib, the builder of
the great palace at Kouyunjik. The pavement was of lime-
stone. After tracing the walls of one chamber, I renounced
a further examination of the ruin, as no traces of sculpture
were to be found, and the accumulation of rubbish was very
considerable.
This mound appeared to cover either an entrance to the
city, or a small temple or tower forming part of the walls.
From its height, it would seem that the building had two or
more stories.*
The comparative rest obtained in Mosul so far restored
my strength, that I returned to Nimroud in the middle of
August, and again attempted to renew the excavations. I
uncovered the top of many of the slabs in the chamber last
discovered, and found two chambers leading out of itf The
sculptures were similar to those already described ; the king
standing between two winged figures, and holding in one
hand a cup, and in the other a bow. The only new feature
was a recess cut out of the upper part of one of the slabs. I
am at a loss to account for its use ; from its position it might
have been taken for a window, opening into the adjoining
room, in which, however, there was no corresponding aper-
ture. It may have been used as a place of deposit for
sacred vessels and instruments, or as an altar for sacrifice,
as a large square stone slightly hollowed in the centre, pro-
bably to contain a fluid, was generally found in front of
similar recesses.
The walls of the small chamber to the west were unsculp-
tured. The pavement was formed by inscribed slabs of
alabaster. The further entrance J led me into a long narrow
room surrounded by double bas-reliefs separated by the
* This mound was further explored on my second visit to Nineveh,
and was found to cover one of the city gates, formed by colossal human-
headed bulLs and other sculptures. (See * Nineveh and Babylon, ' chap. i. )
t Chambers I and R, Plan II. p. 42.
X Entrance ^, Chamber H, Plan II. p. 42.
no NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
usual inscription ; the upper (similar on all the slabs) repre-
senting two winged human figures, kneeling before the mystic
tree; the lower, eagle-headed figures facing each other in
pairs, and separated by the same symbol.
The state of my health again compelled me to renounce,
for the time, my labours at Nimroud. As I required a cooler
climate, I determined to visit the Tiyari mountains, inhabited
by the Nestorians or Chaldaean Christians, and to return
to Mosul in September, when the violence of the heat had
abated.
VI.] JOURNEY TO THE TIYARI MOUNTAINS, in
CHAPTER VI.
Departure for the Tiyari mountains — Kfwrsabad—SJuikh Adi — A
Kurdish encamptnent — A Chaldaan village — Amadiyah — A Turkish
governor — Albanian irregulars — An Albanian chief— The Valley of
Berwari — Chaldaan milages — A Kurdish Bey — Asheetha.
The preparations for my journey were completed by the
28th August, and on that day I started from Mosul for the
mountains. My party consisted of Mr. Hormuzd Rassam,
Ibrahim Agha (my Cawass), two Albanian irregulars, who
were to accompany me as far as Amadiyah, a servant, a
groom, and one lonan, or lonunco, as he was familiarly called,
a half-witted Nestorian, whose drunken frolics were reserved
for the entertainment of the Patriarch, and who was enHsted
into our caravan for the amusement of the company. We
rode our own horses. As lonunco pretended to know all
the mountain-roads, and volunteered to conduct us, we
placed ourselves under his guidance. I was provided with
Bouyourouldis, or orders, from the Pasha to the authorities,
as far as Amadiyah, and with a letter to Abd-ul-Summit Bey,
the Kurdish chief of Berwari, through whose territories we
had to pass. Mar Shamoun, the Nestorian Patriarch (who
was then living at Mosul), gave me a very strong letter of
recommendation to the meleks, or chiefs, and priests of the
Nestorian districts.
As I was anxious to visit the French excavations at Khor-
sabad on my way to the mountains, I left Mosul early in the
afternoon, notwithstanding the great heat of the sun. It
was the sixth day of Ramazan,* and the Mohammedans
* During the month of Ramazan, Mohammedans fast from dawn to
sunset : between these times they cannot even drink water or smoke ;
two privations equally great to Easterns. When the month of Ramazan
falls in the summer, this fasting causes real suffering.
112 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. Chap.
were still endeavouring to sleep away their hunger when I
passed through the gates, and crossed the bridge of boats.
Leaving my baggage and servants to follow leisurely, I
galloped on with the Albanians, and reached Khorsgibad in
about two hours.
The mound is about fourteen miles N.N.E. of Mosul A
small village * formerly stood on its summit, but the houses
were purchased and removed by M. Botta, when excava-
tions were undertaken by the French Government It has
been rebuilt in the plain at the foot of the mound. The
Khausser, a stream issuing from the hills of Makloub, is
led into numerous channels as it approaches Khorsabad,
and irrigates extensive rice grounds. The place is con-
sequently very unhealthy, and the few squalid inhabitants
who appeared were almost speechless from ague. M. Botta's
workmen suffered greatly from fever, and many fell victims
to it
The excavations were carried on as at Nimroud; and the
general plan of the building is the same as that of the Assy-
rian edifices discovered in that ruin. It has, however, more
narrow passages, and the chambers are inferior in size, though
the sculptured slabs are in general higher. The relief of the
larger figures is bolder, that of the smaller about the same.
The human-headed bulls differ principally in the head-dress
from those at Nimroud; the horned cap is not rounded oflf,
but is high and flat at the top, and richly ornamented with
rosettes, like that of the winged monsters of Persepolis.
Some of the human heads are turned inwards, which give
the figure an awkward appearance.
Since M. Botta's departure the sides of the trenches had
fallen in, and had filled up the greater part of the chambers;
the sculptures were rapidly perishing; and, shortly, little will
remain of this remarkable monument. Scarcely any part of
the building had escaped the fire which destroyed it, and
* In the drawing of this village, engraved in M. Botta's large work
on Nineveh, the houses are represented with sloping roofs and as of
considerable size. Such roofs are never seen in this part of the East,
and the village, like all others in Assyria, was a mere collection of
miserable mud huts.
VI.] KHORSABAD. 113
the alabaster slabs having been reduced to lime, and being
cracked into innumerable fragments, very few bas-reliefs could
be removed. Of exterior architecture I could find no traces
except a curious cornice, and a flight of steps, flanked by
soUd masonry, apparently leading to a small temple built of
black stone or basalt, the foundations of which still remain.
At the foot of the mound lies an altar or tripod, quite Greek
in form and similar to that brought from the same ruins and
row in the Louvre.
Altar, or Tripod. (From Khorsabad)
Khorsabad, or Khishtabad, is mentioned by Yakuti and
other early Arab geographers. It is described as a village
occupying the site of an ancient Assyrian city called *Saraoun,'
or * Saraghoun;' and Yakuti declares, that, soon after the Arab
conquest, considerable treasures were found amongst the
ruins.* It was generally believed at Mosul, where a copy
of Yakuti's very rare work exists, that it was in consequence
of this notice, and in the hopes of finding further riches, M.
* The name of the King who built the palace, of which the ruins
exist at Khorsabad, is * Sargon,' according to the inscriptions, and he is
believed to be the Sargon mentioned in the Bible. (Isaiah, xx. I.)
I
114 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
Botta excavated in the mound ; hence much of the opposi-
tion encountered by him from the authorities.
I had finished my hasty examination of the ruins by the
time the baggage reached the village. The sun had set, but
being unwilling to expose my party to fever by passing the
night on this unhealthy spot, I rode off to a small hamlet
about two miles distant It was quite dark when we reached
it, and we found ourselves in the midst of a marsh, even more
extensive than that of Khorsabad. As there was no village
Summer Sleepinjj-place in the Hills.
beyond, I was obliged to stop here; and clambering up to a
plat/orm of branches of trees elevated upon poles, I passed
the night free from the attacks of the swarms of gnats which
infested the stagnant water below.
We left the hamlet long before sunrise, and soon reached
some of the springs of the Khausser, a small stream which
rises at the northern extremity of the Gebel Makloub, irri-
gates the lands of numerous villages on its course towards
Mosul, and falls into the Tigris, near Kouyunjik, after tra-
versing the large quadrangle containing the ruins of Nineveh.
VI.] ARRIVAL A T AIN SIFNL 1 1 5
Our path crossed the northern spur of Gebel Makloub, and
then stretched over an .extensive plain to the first range of
the Kurdish hills. After sunrise the heat soon became in-
tense, the soil was parched and barren ; a few mud walls
marked here and there the ruins of a village, and the silence
and solitude were only broken by parties of Kurds, lazily
driving before them, towards Mosul, donkeys laden with rich
clusters of grapes from the mountains.
A weary ride brought us to the Yezidi village of Ain Sifni.
Its white houses and conical tombs had long been visible on
the declivity of a low hill: its cleanliness was a relief after
the filth of Mussulman and Christian habitations. I had ex- '
pected to find there Sheikh Nasr, the religious chief of the
Yezidis. As he was absent, I partook of the hospitality of
the head of the village, and continued my journey in the
afternoon to the tomb of Sheikh Adi. After a further ride
of two hours through a pleasant ravine watered by a moun-
tain torrent, whose banks were concealed by flowering ole-
anders, we reached a well wooded valley, in the centre of
which rose the white spire of the tomb of the great Yezidi
saint.
Stretching myself by a fountain in the cool shade, flung
over the tomb by a cluster of lofty trees, I gave myself up to
a full flow of gratitude, at this sudden change from the sultry
heat and salt streams of the plains to the verdure and sweet
springs of ihe Kurdish hills. There w^ere * pleasure-places '
enough for all my party, and each eagerly seized his tree
and his fountain. The guardians of the tomb, and a few
wanderers from a neighbouring village, gathered round me,
and satisfied my curiosity as far as their caution and pre-
judices would allow. But I reserve an account of the sanc-
tuary, and of the singular sect to which it belongs, until
I describe my second visit to the place.
We passed the night on the roof of one of the buildings
within the precincts of the sacred edifice, and continued our
journey at dawn on the following morning.
Quitting the Yezidi district, we entered the mountains in-
habited by the large Kurdish tribe of Missouri. The valleys
were well wooded ; many-shaped rocks towered above our
Ii6
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
heads and rose in the streams of the Gomel,* which almost
cut off our passage through the narrow defiles. A few
villages were scattered on the declivities, but their inhabit-
ants had deserted them for rude huts, built of branches of
trees, — their summer habitations.
In four hours we reached the large village of Kaloni, or
Kalah-oni, rising amongst vineyards, and hanging over the
Kurdish Women at a Spring.
bed of the Gomel. The houses, well constructed of stone,
were empty. Huge horns of the ibex ornamented the lin-
tels of the gateways and the comers of the buildings. The
inhabitants were at some distance, on the banks of the stream,
living under the trees in their temporary sheds.
These Kurds were of the Badinan branch of the Missouri
tribe. Their chief, whose hut was in the midst of this group
* Or Gomer ; this stream forms the principal branch of the Ghazir,
or Bumadus.
VI.] VILLA GE OF BEBOZL \ \ 7
of simple dwellings, was absent ; but his wife received me
with hospitality. Beautiful carpets, the work of her own
women, were spread for me under a mulberry tree; and large
bowls of milk and cream, wooden platters filled with boiled
rice, slices of honeycomb, and baskets of new-gathered fruit,
were speedily placed before us. The men sat at a respectful
distance, and readily gave me such information as I asked
for. The women, unembarrassed by veils, brought str^w
to our horses, or ran to and fro with their pitchers. Their
hair fell in long tresses down their backs, and their foreheads
were adorned with rows of coins and beads ; many were not
unworthy of the reputation for beauty which the women of
Missouri enjoy.
The valley, shut in by lofty rocks, was well wooded with
fruit trees — the mulberry, the peach, the fig, the walnut, the
olive, and the pomegranate ; beneath them sprang the vine,
or were laid out plots of Indian corn, sesame, and cotton.
The sheds were built of boughs ; and the property of the
owners, — carpets, horse-cloths, and domestic utensils, — were
spread out before them. From almost every door, mingling
with the grass and flowers, stretched the many-coloured
threads of the loom, at which usually sat one female of the
family. The carpets made by the Kurdish women are cele-
brated throughout the East, for the beauty of their texture
and of their colours. There was a cleanliness, and even rich-
ness, in the dresses of both women and men, an appearance
of comfort and industry, which contrasted strikingly with the
miserable state of the people of the plain ; and proved that
these Kurds had been sufficiently fortunate to escape the
notice of the last governor of Mosul, and were reserved for
some more scrutinising Pasha.
I acknowledged the hospitality of the Kurdish lady by a
present to her son, and rode up to the small Chaldaean
village of Bebozi, standing on the summit of a high mountain.
The ascent was most precipitous, and the horses could with
difficulty reach the place. We found a group of ten houses,
built on the edge of a cliff overhanging the valley, at so
great a height, that the stream below was scarcely visible.
The inhabitants were poor, but received us with unaffected
1 18 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [CHAP.
hospitality. I had left the usual track to Amadiyah for the
purpose of visiting an inscription, said to exist near this
village. A guide was soon found to conduct me to the spot
of which I had heard; but after toiling up a very difficult
pathway, I was shown a rock on which w^re only a few
rude marks, bearing no resemblance to any writing that
had ever been invented. I was accustomed to such disap-
pointments, and always prepared for them. I returned to
the village and visited the small church. The people of
Bebozi are amongst those Chaldaeans who have been recently
brought over to the Roman Catholic faith. They furnish
but a too common instance of the mode in which such pro-
selytes are made. In the church I saw a few miserable
Italian prints representing miracles of saints and of the
blessed Virgin, dressed up in all the horrors of red, yellow,
and blue.
Having rested in the village, we resumed our journey, and
crossed a range of hills, covered by a forest of dwarf oaks.
We descended into the valley of Cheloki, reaching about
sunset the large Kurdish village of Spandareh, so called from
its poplar trees, where we passed the night.
We were now separated from the valley of Amadiyah by
a range of high and well-wooded mountains, called Ghara.
This range we crossed by a track little frequented, and of so
precipitous a nature that our horses could scarcely keep
their footing — one, indeed, carrying part of our baggage,
suddenly disappeared over the edge of a rock, and was found
some hundred feet below, on his back, firmly wedged
between two rocks : how he got there with nothing but the
bone of his tail broken, was a mystery beyond the compre-
hension of our party. The valley of Amadiyah is cut up
into innumerable ravines by the torrents, which rush down
the mountains and force their way to the river Zab. It is,
however, well-wooded with oaks, producing in abundance
the galls for which this district is celebrated. The peasants
were now picking this valuable article of export.
The town and fort of Amadiyah had been visible from the
crest of the Ghara range ; but we had a long ride before us,
and it was nearly midday ere we reached the foot of the
VI.] AMADIYAH, 119
lofty isolated rock on which they are built We rested in
the small Chaldaean village of Bebadi, one of the few in the
district which still retain the Nestorian faith. The inhabit-
ants were miserably poor, and I had to listen to a long tale
of wretchedness and oppression. The church was hung with
a few tattered cotton handkerchiefs, and the priest's garments
were to match. I gave him two or three pieces of common
print, out of which he made a turban for himself, and beau-
tified the altar.
Some half-clothed, fever-stricken Albanians were slumber-
ing on the stone benches as we entered the gates of the fort
of Amadiyah, which certainly during the season of Rama-
zan, if not at all others, might be taken by surprise by a
few resolute Kurds. We found ourselves in the midst of a
heap of ruins — porches, bazaars, baths, habitations, all laid
open to their inmost recesses. Falling walls would have
threatened passers-by, had there been any; but the place
seemed a desert. We had some difficulty in finding our
way to a crumbling ruin, honoured with the name of the
serai — the palace. Here the same general sleep prevailed.
Neither guards nor servants were visible, and we wandered
through the building until we reached the room .of the
governor. His hangers-on were indulging in comfort and
slumber upon the divans, and we had some trouble in rousing
them. We were at length taken to a large gaudily painted
room, in a tower built on the very edge of the rock, and
overlooking the whole valley — the only remnant of the state
of the old hereditary Pashas of Amadiyah. A refreshing
breeze came down from the mountain, the view was so ex-
tensive and beautiful, that I almost forgot the desolation and
p;Dverty which reigned around.
A few miserable Nestorian Chaldseans, and one or two
half-starved Jews came to me with the usual melancholy tale
of distress ; and shortly after Kasha Mendi, a worthy ec-
clesiastic, who ministered to \he spiritual wants of half the
villages in the valley, hearing of my arrival, joined the party.
The priest Avas, of course, better informed than the rest ; and
from him I obtained the information I required as to the
state of the Chaldaeans in the district, and as to the means
I20 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
of reaching Tiyari. The Albanian irregulars were to leave
me here, the authority of the Pasha of Mosul not extending
beyond Amadiyah. We were now to enter the territories of
Kurdish chiefs, who scarcely acknowledged any dependence
upon the Porte. I determined upon hiring mules for the
rest of my journey, and sending all my horses, except one,
with the Albanians to Dohuk, there to await my return.
It was the hour of afternoon prayer before Selim Agha,
the Mutesellim or governor, emerged from his harem ; which,
however, as far as the fair sex were concerned, was empty.
The old gentleman, who was hungry, half asleep, and in the
third stage of the ague, hurried through the ordinary saluta-
tions, and asked at once for quinine. His attendants ex-
hibited illustrations of every variety of the fever ; some
shivered, others glowed, and the rest sweated. He entreated
me to go with him into the harem ; his two sons were buried
beneath piles of cloaks, carpets, and grain-sacks, but the
whole mass trembled with the violence of their shaking. I
dealt out emetics and quinine with a liberal hand, and
returned to the salamlik, or reception room, to hear from
Sehm Agha a most doleful history of fever, diminished re-
venues, arrears of pay, and rebellious Kurds. The tears ran
down his cheeks as he recapitulated his manifold misfor-
tunes, and entreated me to intercede with the governor of
Mosul for his advancement or recall. I left him with his
watch in his hand, anxiously looking for sunset, that he
might console himself with a dose of tartar emetic.
Amadiyah was formerly a place of considerable importance
and strength, and contained a very large and flourishing
population. It was governed by hereditary Pashas — feudal
chiefs, who traced their descent from the Abbaside Caliphs,
and were always looked up to, on that account, with religious
respect by the Kurds. The ladies of this family were no
less venerated, and enjoyed the very peculiar title for a
woman of * Khan.' The last*of these hereditary chiefs was
Ismail Pasha; who long defied, in his almost inaccessible
castle, the attempts of Injeh Bairakdar Mohammed Pasha
to reduce him. A mine was at length sprung under a part of
the wall wliich from its position, the Kurds had believed safe
VI.] UNHEALTHINESS OF AMADIYAH, 121
from attack, and the place was taken by assault Ismail Pasha
was sent a prisoner to Baghdad, where he still remains ; and
his family, amongst whom was his beautiful wife, Esma
Khan, not unknown to the Europeans of Mosul, together
with Mohammed Seyyid Pasha of Akra,* a chief of the
same race, long lived upon the bounty of Mr. Rassam.
Amadiyah is frequently mentioned by the early Arab
geographers and historians, and its foundation dates, most
probably, from a very early epoch. Kasha *Mendi casually
confirmed the assertion of Rich, that the town was once
called Ecbatana, by saying that he had seen it so designated
in a very early Chaldsean MS. The only ancient remains
that I could discover were a defaced ■ bas-relief on the rock
near the northern gate, of which sufficient alone was dis-
tinguishable to enable me to assign to it an approximate
date — the time of the Arsacian kings ; and some excavations
in the rock within the walls, which appear to have been used
at an early period as a Christian church. Amadiyah is pro-
verbially unhealthy, notwithstanding its lofty and exposed po-
sition. At this time of the year the inhabitants leave the
town for the neighbouring mountains, in the valleys of which
they construct * ozailis,' or sheds, with boughs.
I made my way through the deserted streets to a small
inclosure, in which were the quarters of the Albanians. The
disposable force may have consisted of three men ; the rest
were stretched out on all sides, suffering under every stage
of fever, ami'dst heaps of filth and skins of water melons,
showing the nature and extent of their commissariat One
of their chiefs boasted that he had braved the fever, and
insisted upon my drinking coffee, and smoking a narguileh
of no very prepossessing appearance with him. He even
indulged so far in mirth and revelry, that he disturbed a
shivering youth basking in the last rays of the sun, and
brought him to play upon a santour, which had lost the
greater number of its strings. A melody of his native
mountains brought on a fit of melancholy, and he. dwelt
upon the miseries of an irregular's life, when there was
* A district to the east of Amadiyah.
122 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
neither war nor plunder. The evening gun announced sun-
set whilst I was sitting with the chief; and I left the garrison
as they were breaking their fast on donkey-loads of unripe
water-melons.
On my return to the serai, I found the Governor recover-
ing from the effects of his emetic, and anxious for his din-
ner. As the month of Ramazan is, during the nights, one
of festivity and open house, Ismail Agha of Tepelin (the
Albanian chief* in command of the garrison), the Cadi, the
collector of the jevenue, a Kurdish chief, and one or two
others, came as guests. Our meal gave undoubted proofs
either of the smallness of the means of Selim Agha, or of
the limited resources of the country. When the dinner was
over, I introduced a theological subject as becoming the
season, and the Cadi entered deeply into the subject of
predestination and free will. The reckless way in which the
Albanian threw himself into the argument astonished the
company, and shocked the feelings of the expounder of
the law. His views of the destiny of man were bold and
.original; he appealed to me for a confirmation of his
opinions, and assuming that I fully concurred with him,
and that he had silenced the Cadi, who was ejaculating a
pious * Istaffer Allah ' (may God forgive him), he finished by
asking me to breakfast.
Next morning I left my guards and the attendants of the
Governor to hire mules for my journey from the peasants
who had brought provisions to the town, and after some
difficulty found my way to the quarters of Ismail Agha.
They were in a small house, the only habitable spot in the
midst of a heap of ruins. His room was hung round with
guns, swords, and yataghans, and a few dirty Albanians,
armed to the teeth, were lounging at the door. The chief
had adorned himself most elaborately. His velvet jacket
was covered with a maze of gold embroidery, his arms were
of the most costly description, and ample fur cloaks were
spread over the dingy divans. It was a strange display of
finery in the midst of misery. He received me with great
cordiality; and when he found that I had been to his old
haunts in his native land, and had known his kith and kin.
VI.] VISIT TO ISMAIL AGHA. 123
his friendship for me exceeded all reasonable bounds. * We
are all brothers, the English and the Tosques ' (an Albanian
tribe), exclaimed he, endeavouring to embrace me ; * we are
all Framasouns ; * I know nothing of these Turks and their
Ramazan, thank God ! Our stomachs were given us to be
filled, and our mouths to take in good things.' He ac-
companied these words with a very significant signal to one
of his followers, who, at no loss to understand his meaning,
set about forming a pyramid of cushions, to the top of which
he mounted at the imminent risk of his neck, and reached
down from a shelf a huge bottle of wine, with a correspond-
ing pitcher of raki. Ismail Agha then dived into the recesses
of a very capacious but ill-looking purse, out of which he
pulled twenty paras,t its sole contents, and despatched
without delay one of his attendants to the stall of a solitary
grocer, who was apparently the only commercial survivor in
the wreck around him. The boy soon returned with a small
parcel of parched peas, a few dates, and three lumps of
sugar, which were duly spread on a tray and placed before
us as zests to the wine and brandy. It was evident that
Ismail Agha had fully made up his mind to a morning's
debauch, and my position was an uncomfortable one. After
drinking a few glasses of raki in solitary dignity, he invited
his followers to join him. Messengers were despatched in
all directions for music ; a Jew with the ague, the band of
the regiment, consisting of two cracked dwarf kettledrums
and a fife, and two Kurds with a fiddle and a santour, were
collected together. I took an opportunity of slipping out
of the room unseen, amidst the din of Albanian songs and
the dust of Palicari dances.
On my return to the serai I found the mules ready, the
owners having been, after much discussion, brought to
understand that it was my intention to pay for their hire.
Everything being settled, and the animals loaded, I wished
* The terms Framasoun (or Freemason) and Protestant, which are
frequently used indiscriminately, are in the East, I am sorry to say,
equivalent to infidel. The Roman Catholic missionaries have very
industriously spread the cfUumny.
t About one penny.
124 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
the Mutesellim good day, and promised to bring his miser-
able condition to the notice of the Pasha.
Accompanied by a Kurdish chief, we left Amadiyah by
the gate opposite to that by which we had entered. We
were obliged to descend on foot the steep pathway leading
to the valley below. Crossing some well-cultivated gardens,
we commenced the ascent of the mountains through a
wooded ravine, and came suddenly upon the Yilaks, or
summer quarters of the population of Amadiyah. The spot
was well chosen. The torrent was divided into a thousand
streams, which broke over the rocks, falling in cascades into
the valley below. Fruit trees and oaks concealed the huts
and tents, and creepers of many hues almost covered the
sides of the ravine. All our party enjoyed the delicious
coolness and fragrance of the place ; and we did not wonder
that the people of Amadiyah had left the baneful air of the
town for these pleasant haunts. An. hour's ride brought us
to the summit of the pass, from which a magnificent view of
the Tiyari mountains opened before us. lonunco became
eloquent when he beheld his native Alps, and named one by
one the lofty peaks which sprang out of the confused heaps
of hills ; that of Asheetha and several others were covered
with snow. Below us was the long valley of Berwari, which
separates the range of Amadiyah from the Nestorian country.
At a short distance from the crest of the pass we found
a small barren plain, called Nevdasht, in which stands the
Kurdish village of Maglana. We reached Hayis, a Nestorian
hamlet, about sunset. There were but four families in the
place, so destitute that we could only procure a little boiled
meal, and some dried mulberries for our supper. The poor
creatures, however, did all they could to make us comfort-
able, and gave us what they had.
The valley of Berwari is well-wooded with the gall-bearing
oak; and the villages are surrounded by gardens and or-
chards. The present chief of the district, Abd-ul-Summit
Bey, is a Mussulman fanatic, and has almost ruined the
Christian population. In all the villages through which we
passed we saw the same scene, and heard the same tale of
wretchedness. Yet the land is rich, water plentiful, and the
VI.] CASTLE OF KUMRL 125
means of cultivation easy. Fruit trees of many descriptions
abound ; and tobacco, rice, and grain of various kinds could
be extensively cultivated. Even the galls afford but a
scanty gain to the villagers, as those who collect them are
obliged to sell them to the chief at a very low price. The
villages are partly inhabited by Kurds and partly by Nestorian
Chaldaeans ; there are no Catholics amongst them. Many
of the Christian villages have been reduced to five or six
houses, and some even to two or three. We stopped at
several during our day's journey. The men, with the priests,
were generally absent picking galls ; the women were seated
in circles under the trees, clipping the grapes and immersing
them in boiling water previous to drying them for raisins.
We were everywhere received with the same hospitality, and
everywhere found the same poverty. Even Ibrahim Agha,
who had been enured to the miseries of misgovemment,
grew violent in his expressions of indignation against Abd-
ul-Summit Bey, and indulged in a variety of threats against
all the male and female members of his family.
The castle of Kumri or Gumri, the residence of Abd-ul-
Summit Bey, stands on the pinnacle of a lofty isolated rock,
and may be seen from most parts of the valley of Berwari.
It is a small mud fort, but is looked upon as an impregnable
place by the Kurds. The chief had evidently received
notice of my approach, and probably suspected that the
object of my visit was an inspection, for no friendly purposes,
of his stronghold ; for as we came near to the foot of the
hill, we saw him hastening down a precipitous pathway on
the opposite side, as fast as his horse could carry him. A
muUaii, one of his hangers-on, having been sent to meet us
on the road, informed me that his master had left the castle
early in the morning, for a distant village, whither we could
follow him. Not having any particular wish to make a closer
inspection of Kalah Kumri, I struck into the hills, and took
the pathway pointed out by the mullah.
We rode through several Kurdish villages, surrounded by
gardens, and well watered by mountain streams. A pass of
some elevation had to be crossed before we could reach the
village of Mia, our quarters for the night Near its summit
126 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
we found a barren plain on which several Kurdish horsemen,
who had joined us, engaged with my own party in the Jerid.
The mimic fight soon caused general excitement, and old
habits getting the better of my dignity, I joined the melee. A
severe kick in the leg from a horse soon put an end to my
manoeuvres, and we were detained until I was sufficiently
recovered from the effects of the accident to continue our
journey. It was consequently sunset before we' reached
Mia. There are two villages of this name ; the upper, inha-
bited by Mohammedans, the lower by Nestorian Chaldseans.
A Kurd met us as we were entering the former, with a
message from Abd-ul-Summit Bey, to the effect that, having
guests, he could not receive me there, but had provided a
house in the Christian village, where he would join us after
his dinner. I rode on to the lower Mia, and found a party
of Kurds belabouring the inhabitants, and collecting old
carpets and household furniture. Understanding that these,
proceedings were partly meant as preparations for my recep--
tion, though the greater share of the objects collected was
intended for the comfort of the Bey's Mussulman guests, I
at once put a stop to the pillaging, and released the sufferers.
We ascended to a clean and spacious roof ; and with the
assistance of the people of the house, who were ready enough
to assist us when they learnt that we were Christians, estab-
hshed ourselves there for the night.
Soon after dark another messenger came from Abd-ul-
Summit Bey to say that as the Cadi and other illustrious
guests were with him, he could not visit me before the
morning. I had from the first suspected that these delays
and excuses had an object, and that the chief wished to give
a proof of his dignity to the Kurds, by treating me in as
unceremonious a manner as possible ; so, calling the Kurd,
and addressing him in a loud voice, that the people who had
gathered round the house might hear, I requested him to
be the bearer of a somewhat uncivil answer to his master,
and took care that he should fully understand its terms,
lonunco's hair stood on end at the audacity of this speech,
and the Nestorians trembled at the results. Ibrahim Agha
tittered with delight; and pushing the Kurd away by the
VI.] ABD- UL-SUMMIT BE V. 127
shoulders, told him to be particular in delivering his answer.
The message had the effect I had anticipated; an hour
afterwards, shuffling over the housetops at the great risk of
liis shins, and with a good chance of disappearing down a
chimney, came the Bey. He was enveloped in a variety of
cloaks ; and wore, after the manner of the Bohtan chiefs, a
turban of huge dimensions — about four feet in diameter —
made up of numberless kerchiefs and rags of every hue of
red, yellow, and black, and a jacket and wide trowsers richly
embroidered; in his girdle were all manner of weapons. In
person he was tall and handsome ; his eyes were dark, his
nose aquiline, and his beard black ; but the expression of
his face was far from prepossessing. I left him to open the
conversation, which he did by a multiplicity of excuses and
apologies for what had passed, not having, by the Prophet,
been aware, he said, of the rank of the guest by whose
presence he had been honoured. I pointed out to him one
or two fallacies in his assertions; and we came to a distinct
understanding on the subject, before we proceeded to general
topics. He sat with me till midnight, and entered, amongst
other things, into a long justification of his conduct towards
Christians, which proved that his authority was not established
as well as he could desire.
In the morning the Bey sent me a breakfast, and gave me
a party of Kurdish horsemen as an escort to the Tiyari
frontier, which was not far distant Beyond Mia we passed
through Bedou, the largest and most populous Kurdish village
I had seen.
Our guards would not venture into the territories of the
Tiyari, between whom and the Kurds there are continual
hostilities, but quitted us in a narrow desolate valley, up which
our road to Asheetha now led. I lectured my party on the
necessity of caution during our future wanderings ; and re-
minded my Cawass and Mohammedan servants that they had
no longer the quiet Christians of the plains to deal with. Re-
signing ourselves to the guidance of lonunco, who now felt
that he was on his own soil, we made our way with difficulty
over the rocks and stones with which the valley is blocked up,
and struck into what our guide represented to be a short cut to
128 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
Asheetha. The pathway might certainly, on some occasions,
have been used by the mountain goats ; but the passage of
horses and mules was a miracle. After a most tedious walk,
we reached the top of the pass and looked down on the
village. From this spot the eye rested upon a scene of great
beauty. In front rose the lofty peak, with its snows and gla-
ciers, visible even from Mosul. At our feet the village
spread over the whole valley; and detached houses, sur-
rounded by gardens and orchards, were scattered over the
sides of the mountains. To the right ran the valley which
leads to the Zab. We had little difficulty in descending
over the loose stones and detritus which cover the face
of the mountain, although both our mules and ourselves had
frequent falls. On reaching the entrance of the valley, we
rode at once to the house of Yakoub, the rais or chief of
Asheetha, who received us with grateful hospitality.
VII.] A NESTORIAN WELCOME. 129
CHAPTER VII.
Asheetka — A Nestorian house — The massacre — Zaweetha — Nes»
torian priests — Murghi — Lizan — Scent of the massacre— A Tiyari
bridge— Raola — The house of the Mdek—The district of Tkhoma
— Alarm of the inhcdntants — Church service — Tkhoma Gowaia
— A Kurdish chief— Pass into Baz — Ergub — Return to Tkhoma
— Be-Alatha — Roads of Tiyari — Chonba — Murder of Melek
Ismail — Return to Asheetha — Kasha Auraham — A copper mine —
Challek — Ourmdi — A Subashi — A Kurdish saint — Malthayiah —
Sculptures — Alkosh — Tomb of the prophet Nahum — Rdbban Hormuzd
— Tdkef and its Christian inhabitants — Return to Mosul — Second
massacre in the Nestorian mountains — Capture and exile of Beder
Khan Bey,
We had no sooner reached the house of Yakoub Rais, than
a cry of * The Bey is come/ spread rapidly through the village,
and I was surrounded by a crowd of men, women, and boys.
My hand was kissed by all, and I had to submit for some
time to this tedious process. As for my companion, he was
almost smothered in the embraces of the girls, nearly all of
whom had been liberated from slavery after the great massacre,
and had been supported in their distress by his brother for
some months in Mosul.* Amongst the men were many of
* It may be remembered, that Beder Khan Bey, in 1843, invaded the
Tiyari districts, massacred in cold blood nearly io,0(X) of their inha-.
bitants, and carried away as slaves a large number of women and
children. But it is, perhaps, not generally known, that the release of
the greater part of the captives was obtained through the humane inter-
ference and generosity of Sir Stratford Canning, who prevailed upon
the Porte to send a commissioner into Kurdistan, for the purpose of
inducing Beder Khan Bey and other Kurdish chiefs to give up the
slaves they had taken, and who advanced, himself, a considerable suni
towards their liberation. Mr. Rassam also obtained the release of
many slaves, and maintlained and clothed, at his own expense and for
many months, not only the Nestorian Patriarch, who had taken refuge
in Mosul, but many hundred Chaldaeans who had escaped from the
mountains.
I30 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
those who had been employed by ms at Nimroud. They
were distinguished from the rest of the inhabitants of Asheetha
by their gay dresses and arms, the fruits of their industry
during the winter. They were anxious to show their gratitude
and their zeal in my service. The priests came too ; Kasha
Ghioorghis, Kasha Hormuzd, and others. As they entered
the room, the whole assembly rose ; and lifting their turbans
and caps reverentially from their heads, kissed the hand ex-
tended to them. In the meanwhile the girls had disappeared,
but soon returned, each bearing a platter of fruit which they
placed before me. My workmen also brought large dishes
of boiled garas (a kind of millet) swimming in butter. There
were provisions enough for the whole company.
The first inquiries were after Mar Shamoun, the Patriarch.
I produced his letter, which the priests first kissed and then
placed to their foreheads. They afterwards passed it to the
principal men, who went through the same ceremony. Kasha
Ghioorghis then read the letter aloud, and at its close, those
present uttered a pious ejaculation for the welfare of their
Patriarch, and renewed their expressions of welcome to us.
These preliminaries having been concluded, we had to
satisfy all present as to the object, extent, and probable dura-
tion of our journey. The village was in the greatest alarm
at a threatened invasion from Beder Khan Bey. The district
of Tkhoma, which had escaped the former massacre, was
now the object of his fanatical vengeance. He was to march
through Asheetha, and orders had already been sent to the
inhabitants to collect provisions for his men. As his expedi-
tion was not to be undertaken before the close of Ramazan,
there was full time to see the proscribed districts before the
Kurds entered them. I determined, however, to remain a
day ih Asheetha, to rest our mules.
On the morning following our arrival, I went with Yakoub
Rais to visit the village. The trees and luxuriant crops had
concealed the desolation of the place, and had given to
Asheetha, from without, a flourishing appearance. As I
wandered, however, through the lanes. I found little but ruins.
A few houses were risipg from the charred heaps ; still the
greater part of the sites were without owners, whole families
VII.]
A "NESTORIAN HOUSE,
131
having perished. Yakoub pointed out, as we went along,
the former dwellings of wealthy inhabitants, and told me how
and where they had been murdered. A solitary church had
been built since the massacre j the foundations of others
were seen amongst the ruins. The pathways were still
blocked up by the trunks of trees cut down by the Kurds.
Watercourses, once carrying fertility to many gardens, were
now empty and dry ; and the lands which they had irrigated
were left naked and unsown, I was surprised at the proofs
A Nestorian House in the Dbtrict of Tiyari.
of the industry and activity of the few surviving families, who
had returned to the village, and had already brought a large
portion of the land into cultivation.
The houses of Asheetha are not built in a group, but are
scattered over the valley like those of the Tiyari districts.*
Each dwelling stands in the centre of the land belonging to
its owner ; consequently, the village occupies a much larger
space . than would otherwise be required, but has a cheerful
* Asheetha and Zaweetha were formerly looked upon as half-indepen-
dent districts, each having its own Rais or head. They were neither
within the territories nor under the authority of the Meleks of Tiyari.
K 2
132 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
and pleasing appearance. The houses are simple, and con-
structed so as to afford protection and comfort, during winter
and summer. The lower part is of stone, and contains two
or three rooms inhabited by the family and their cattle
during the cold months. Light is admitted by the door,
and by small holes in the wall There are no windows, as,
in the absence of glass, a luxury as yet unknown in Kurdistan,
the cold would be very great during the winter, when the
inhabitants are frequently snowed up for many days together.
The upper floor is constructed partly of stone, and partly of
wood, the whole side facing the south being open. Enormous
beams, resting on wooden pillars and on the walls, support
the roof. This is the summer habitation, and here all the
members of the family reside. During July and August,
they usually sleep on the roof, upon which they erect stages
of boughs and grass resting on high poles. By thus raising
themselves as much as possible, they avoid the vermin which
swarm in the rooms, and catch the night winds which carry
away the gnats. Sometimes they build these stages in the
branches of high trefes around the houses. The winter pro-
vision of dried grass and straw for the cattle is stacked near
the dwelling, or is heaped on the roof.
As this was the first year that the surviving inhabitants of
Asheetha, about 200 families, had returned to the village and
had cultivated the soil, they were almost without provisions
of any kind. We were obliged to send to Zaweetha for
meat and rice, and even milk was scarce, the flocks having
been carried away by the Kurds. Garas was all we could
find to eat They had no com and very little barley.
Their bread was made of this garas or millet, and upon it
alone they lived, except when on holidays they boiled the
grain, and soaked it in melted butter.
The men were now busy in irrigating the land, and seemed
to be rewarded by the promise of ample crops of their
favourite garas, and of wheat, barley, rice, and tobacco.
The boys kept up a continued shrill shriek or whistle to
frighten away the small birds, which had been attracted in
shoals by the ripe com. When tired of this exercise, they
busied themselves with their partridges. Almost every youth
VII.] AMERICAN MISSION, 133
in the country carries one of these birds at his back, in a
round wicker cage, and to make them fight is a favourite
pastime. Indeed, whilst the mountains and the valleys swarm
with wild partridges, the houses are as much infested by the
tame. The women, too, were not idle. The greater part of
them, even the girls, were beating out the com, or employed
in the fields. A few were at the doors of the houses working
at the loom, or spinning wool for the clothes of the men.
I never saw more general or cheerful industry; even the
priests took part in the labours of their congregation.
I walked to the ruins of the school and dwelling-house,
built by the American missionaries during their short sojourn
in the mountains. These buildings had been the cause of
much jealousy and suspicion to the Kurds, who believed that
the Franks were about to build forts, and to take possession
of the country. They stand upon the summit of an isolated
hill, commanding the whole valley. A position less osten-
tatious and proportions more modest might certainly have
been chosen; and it is surprising that persons, so well
acquainted with the character of the tribes amongst whom
they had come to reside, should have been thus indiscreet.
They were, however, most zealous and worthy men ; and,
had their plans succeeded, I have little doubt that they
would have conferred signal benefits on the Nestorian Chal-
daeans. I never heard their names mentioned by the Tiyari,
and most particularly that of Dr. Grant, without expressions
of profound respect, amounting almost to veneration.*
During the occupation of Asheetha by the Kurds, one
Zeinel Bey with a few men fortified himself in the house con-
structed by the Americans; and the position was so strong,
that, holding it against all the attempts of the Tiyari to
dislodge him, he kept the whole of the valley in subjection.
* Dr. Grant, who published an account of his visit to the mountains,
fell a victim to his humane zeal for the Chaldseans in 1844. After the
massacre, his house in Mosul was filled with fugitives, whom he sup-
ported and clothed. Their sufferings, and the want of common neces-
saries before they reached the town, had bred a malignant t)rphus fever 3
of which many died, and which Dr. Grant caught whilst attending the?
sick in his house. Mosul holds the remains of most of those who were
engaged in the American missions to the Chaldaeans.
134 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
Yakoub Rais, who was naturally of a lively and jovial
disposition, could not restrain his tears as he related to me
the particulars of the massacre. He had been amongst the
first seized by Beder Khan Bey ; and having been kept by
that chief as a kind of hostage, he had been continually with
him, during the attack on the Tiyari, and had witnessed all
the scenes of bloodshed which he so graphically described.
The descent upon Asheetha was sudden and unexpected.
A large number of the inhabitants fell victims to the fury of
the Kurds, who endeavoured to destroy every trace of the
village. We walked to the church, which had been newly
constructed by the united exertions and labour of the people.
The door was so low, that a person, on entering, had to
bring his back to the level of his knees. The entrances to
Christian churches in this part of the East are generally so
constructed, that horses and beasts of burden may not be
lodged by Mohammedans within the sacred building. A few
rituals, a book of prayer, and the Scriptures, all in manu-
script, were lying upon the rude altar; but a great part of
the leaves were wanting, and those which remained were
either torn into shreds, or disfigured by damp and water.
The manuscripts of the churches were hid in the mountains
or buried in some secure place, at the time of the massacre ;
and as the priests, who had concealed them, were mostly
killed, the books have not all been recovered. A few
English prints and handkerchiefs from Manchester were hung
about the walls ; a bottle, ^ glass, and a tin plate for the sacra-
ment, stood upon the table ; a curtain of coarse cloth hung
before the inner recess, the Holy of Holies ; and these were
all the ornaments and furniture of the place.
I visited my former workmen, the priests, and those whom
I had seen at Mosul; and as it was expected that I should
partake of the hospitality of each, and eat of the dishes they
had prepared for me — generally garas floating in melted
rancid butter, with a layer of sour milk above — by the time
I returned to Yakoub's mansion, my appetite was abundantly
satisfied. At the door, however, stood Sarah, and a bevy
of young damsels with baskets of fruits mingled with ice
VII.] BEAUTY OF THE COUNTRY, 135
fetched from the glacier ; ^ nor would they leave me until I
had tasted of every thing.
We lived in a patriarchal way with the Rais. My bed
was made in one comer of the room. The opposite comer
was occupied by Yakoub, his wife and unmarried daughters;
a third was appropriated to his son and daughter-in-law, and
all the members of his son's family; the fourth was assigned
to. my companion ; and various individuals, whose position
in our household could not be very accurately determined,
took possession of the centre. We slept well nevertheless,
and no one troubled himself about his neighbour. Even
Ibrahim Agha, whose paradise was Chanak Kalassi, the
Dardanelles, to which he always disadvantageous^ compared
every thing, confessed that the Tiyari Mountains were not
an unpleasant portion of the Sultan's dominions.
Yakoub volunteered to accompany me during the rest of
my joumey through the mountains ; and as he was generally
known, was well acquainted with the by-ways and passes,
and a very merry companion withal, I eagerly accepted his
offer. We left part of our baggage at his house, and it was
agreed that he should occasionally ride one of the mules.
He was a very portiy person, gaily dressed in an embroidered
jacket and wide trowsers, striped red and black, and carrying
a variety of arms in his girdle.
The country through which we passed, after leaving Ashee-
tha, could scarcely be surpassed in the beauty and sublimity
of its scenery. The patches of land on the declivities of the
mountains were cultivated with extraordinary skill and care.
I never saw greater proofs of industry. Our mules, however,
were dragged over places almost inaccessible to men on
foot, but we forgot the toils and dangers of the way in gazing
upon the magnificent prospect before us. Zaweetha is in the
same valley as Asheetha. The stream formed by the eternal
snows above the latter village, forces its way to the Zab.
On the mountain-sides is the most populous and best culti-
vated district in Tiyari. The ravine below Asheetha is too
narrow to admit of the road being carried along the banks of
the torrent; and we were compelled to climb over a mass of
rocks, rising to a considerable height above it. Frequently
136 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
the footing was so insecure that it required the united force
of several men to carry the mules along by their ears and
tails. We, who were unaccustomed to mountain paths,
were obliged to have recourse to the aid of our hands and
knees.
I had been expected at Zaweetha ; and, before we entered
the first gardens of the village, a party of girls, bearing
• baskets of fruit advanced to meet me. Their hair neatly
plaited and adorned with flowers, fell down their backs.
On their heads they wore coloured kerchiefs loosely tied, or
an embroidered cap. Many were pretty, and the prettiest
was Aslani, a liberated slave, who had been for some time
under the protection of Mrs. Rassam ; she led the party, gind
welcomed me to Zaweetha. My hand having been kissed
by all, they simultaneously threw themselves upon my com-
panion, and saluted him vehemently on both cheeks ; such
a mode of salutation, in ^he case of a person of my rank and
distinction, not being, unfortunately, considered either re-
spectful or decorous. The girls were followed by the Rais
and the principal inhabitants, and I was led by them into
the village.
The Rais of Zaweetha had fortunately rendered some
service to Beder Khan Bey, and on the invasion of Tiyari
his village was spared. It had not even been deserted by
its inhabitants, nor had its trees and gardens been injured.
It was consequently, at the time of my visit, one of the most
flourishing villages in the mountains. The houses, neat
and clean, were still overshadowed by the wide-spreading
walnut-tree ; every foot of ground which could receive seed,
or nourish a plant, was cultivated. Soil had been brought
from elsewhere, and built up in terraces on the precipitous
sides of the mountains. A small pathway among the gardens
led us to the house of the Rais.
We were received by Kasha Kan a of Lizan, and Kasha
Yusuf of Siatha ; the first, one of the very few learned priests
left among the Nestorian Chaldaeans. Our welcome was as
unaffected and sincere as it had been at Asheetha. Pre-
parations had been made for our reception, and the women
of the chiefs family were congregated around huge cauldrons
VII.] KASHA KAN A THE PRIEST. 137
at the door of the house, cooking an entire sheep, with rice
and garas. The liver, heart, and other portions of the en-
trails were immediately cut into pieces, roasted on ramrods,
and brought on these skewers into the room. The fruit,
too, melons, pomegranates, and grapes, all of excellent
quality, spread on the floor before us, served to allay our
appetites until the breakfast was ready.
Mar Shamoun's letter was read witii the usual solemnities
by Kasha ICana, and we had to satisfy the numerous inquiries
of the company. It was believed that their Patriarch
was kept as a prisoner in Mosul, and his return to the
mountains was expected with deep anxiety. Everywhere,
except in Zaweetha, the churches had been destroyed to their
foundations, and the priests put to death. Some of the
holy edifices had been rudely rebuilt ; but the people were
unwilling to use them until they had been consecrated
by the Patriarch. There were not priests enough indeed to
officiate, nor could others be ordained until Mar Shamoun
himself performed the ceremony. These wants had been
the cause of great irregularities and confusion in Tiyari;
and the Nestorian Chaldaeans, who are naturally a religious
people, and greatly attached to their churches and ministers,
were more alive to them than to any of their misfortunes.
Kasha Kana was making his weekly rounds amongst the
villages which had lost their priests. He carried under his
arm a bag full of munuscripts, consisting chiefly of rituals
and copies of the Scriptures ; but he had also one or two
volumes on profane subjects, which he prized highly ;
amongst them was a grammar of the Chaldaean language
spoken by the Nestorians, by Rabba lohannan bar Zoabee,
to which he was chiefly indebted for his learning.* He read
* Although few works on other subjects than those connected with
theology and the church services now exist amongst the Nestorians, it
must be remembered that, at the time of the Arab invasion, the learning
of the East was still chiefly to be found with the Chaldaeans. We are
indebted to them for the preservation of munerous precious fragments of
Greek literature, as the Greeks were, many centuries before, to their
ancestors, -the Chaldees of Babylon, for the records of astronomy and
the elements of Eastern science. They had translated into Chaldee, at
an early period, the works of Greek physicians and philosophers, and, at
the request of the Caliphs, ^ ho were the encouragers and patrons of
138 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
to us — holding as usual the book upside down — a part of
the introduction, treating of the philosophy and nature of
languages, and illustrated the text by various attempts at the
delineation of most marvellous alphabets. A taste for the
fine arts seemed to prevail generally in the village, and the
walls of the Raises house were covered with sketches of wild
goats and snakes in every variety of posture. The young
men were eloquent on the subject of the chase, and related
their exploits with the wild animals of the mountains. A
cousin of the chief, a handsome youth, very gaily dressed,
had shot a bear a few days before, after a hazardous en-
counter. He brought me the skin, which measured seven
feet in length. The two great subjects of complaint I found
to be the Kurds and the bears, both equally mischievous ;
the latter carrying off the fruit both when on the trees and
when laid out to dry; and the former the provisions stored
for the winter. In some villages in Berwari the inhabitants
pretended to be in so much dread of the bears, that they
would not venture out alone after dark.
The Rais, finding that I would not accept his hospitality
for the night, accompanied us, followed by the principal in-
habitants, to the outskirts of the village. His frank and
manly bearing, and simple kindness, had made a most favour-
able impression upon me, and I left him with regret Kasha
Kana, too, fully merited the praise which he received from
all who knew him. His appearance was mild and venerable;
his beard, white as snow, fell low upon his breast; but his
garments were in a very advanced stage of rags. I gave him
a few handkerchiefs, some of which were at once grateftilly
applied to the bettering of his raiment, the remainder being
reserved for the embellishment of his parish church. The
Kasha is looked up to as the physician, philosopher, and sage
of Tiyari, and is treated with great veneration by the people.
learning, had re-translated them into the Arabic language. The Caliph
Al Mamoun sent learned Nestorians into Syria, Armenia, and Egypt
to collect manuscripts, and confided for translation to hi Chaldaean
subjects, amongst other treatises, those of Aristotle and Galen.
Alexander Von Humboldt (Cosmos, vol. ii. ch. 5) admits and com-
mends the influence of the Nestorian Chaldaeans on the civilisation of
the East.
VII.] SCENE OF THE MASSACRE, 139
As we walked through the village, the women left their thres-
holds, and the boys their sports, to kiss his hand — a mark of
respect, however, which is invariably shown to the priesthood.
We had been joined by Mirza, a confidential servant of
Mar Shamoun, and our party was further increased by several
men returning to villages on our road. Yakoub Rais kept
every one in good humour by his anecdotes, and the absurdity
of his gesticulations. lonunco, too, dragging his mare over
the projecting rocks, down which he continually contrived to
tumble, added to the general mirth, and we went laughing
through the valley.
From Zaweetha to the Zab, there is almost an unbroken
line of cultivation on both sides of the valley. The two
villages of Miniyanish and Murghi are buried in groves of
walnut-trees, and their peaceful and flourishing appearance
deceived me until I wandered amongst their dwellings, and
found the same scenes of misery and desolation as at
Asheetha. But nature was so beautiful that we almost
forgot the havoc of man, and envied the repose of these
secluded habitations. In Miniyanish, out of seventy houses
only twelve had risen from their ruins; the families to which
the rest belonged having been totally destroyed. Yakoub
pointed out a spot where, he said, above three hundred
persons had been murdered in cold blood ; and all our party
had some tale of horror to relate. Murghi was not less
desolate than Miniyanish, and eight houses alone had been
resought by their owners. We found an old priest, blind and
grey, bowed down by age and grief, the solitary survivor of
six or eight of his order. He was seated under the shade
of a walnut tree, near a small stream. Some children of the
village were feeding him with grapes, and on our approach
his daughter ran into the half-ruined cottage, and brought
out a basket of fruit and a loaf of garas bread. I endeavoured
to glean some information from the old man as to the state
of his flock; but his mind wandered to the cruelties of the
Kurds, or dwelt upon the misfortunes of his Patriarch, over
whose fate he shed many tears. None of our party being
able to console the Kasha, I gave some handkerchiefs to liis
daughter, and we resumed our journey.
I40 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
Our road lay through the gardens of the villages, and
through the forest of gall-bearing oaks which clothe the
niountains above the line of cultivation. But it was every-
where equally difficult and precipitous, and we tore our way
through the matted boughs of overhanging trees, or the thick
foliage of creepers which hung from every branch. Innume-
rable rills, leading the mountain springs into the terraced
fields, crossed our path and rendered our progress still more
tedious. We reached Lizan, however, early in the afternoon
descending to the village through scenery of extraordinary
beauty and grandeur.
Lizan stands on the river Zab, which is crossed near the
village by a rude bridge. I need not weary or distress the
reader with a description of desolation and misery, hardly
concealed by the most luxuriant vegetation. We rode to the
graveyard of a roofless church slowly rising from its ruins —
the first edifice in the village to be rebuilt. We spread our
carpets amongst the tombs, for as yet there were no habi-
table houses. The Melek, with a few who had survived the
massacre, was living during the day under the trees, and
sleeping at night on stages of grass and boughs, raised on
high poles, fixed in the very bed of the Zab. By this latter
contrivance they succeeded in catching any breeze that
might be carried down the narrow ravine of the river, and
in freeing themselves from the gnats and sand-flies abound-
ing in the valley.
It was near Lizan that occurred one of the most terrible
incidents of the massacre; and an active mountaineer off*ering
to lead me to the spot, I followed him up the mountain.
Emerging from the gardens we found ourselves at the foot of
an almost perpendicular detritus of loose stones, terminated,
about one thousand feet above us by a wall of lofty rocks.
Up this ascent we toiled for above an hour, sometimes
clinging to small shrubs whose roots scarcely reached the
scanty soil below; at others crawling on our hands and
knees ; crossing the gullies to secure a footing, or carried
down by the stones which we put in motion as we advanced.
We soon saw evidences of the slaughter. At first a solitary
skull rolling down with the rubbish; then heaps of blanched
VII.] SCENE OF THE MASSACRE. 141
bones ; further up, fragments of rotten garments. As we ad-
vanced, these remains became more frequent : skeletons,
almost entire, still hung to the dwarf shrubs. I was soon
compelled to renounce an attempt to count them. As we
approached the wall of rock, the declivity became covered
with bones, mingled with the long plaited tresses of the
women, shreds of discoloured linen, and well-worn shoes.
There were skulls of all ages, from the child unborn to the
toothless old man. We could not avoid treading on the
bones as we advanced, and rolling them with the loose stones
into the valley below. *This is nothing,' exclaimed my
guide, who observed me gazing with wonder on these miser-
able heaps; ' they are but the remains of those who were
thrown from above, or sought to escape the sword by jump-
ing from the rock. Follow me !* He sprang upon a ledge
projecting from the precipice that rose before us, and clam-
bered along the face of the mountain overhanging the Zab,
now scarcely visible ^t our feet. I followed him as well as
I was able to some distance; but when the ledge became
scarcely broader than my hand, and frequentiy disappeared
for three or four feet altogether, ircould no longer advance.
The Tiyari, who had easily surmounted these difficulties, re-
turned to assist me, but in vain. J was still suffering severely
.from the kick received in my leg four days before, and was
compelled to retiun, after catching a glimpse of an open
recess or platform covered with human remains.
When the fugitives who had escaped from Asheetha,
spread the news of the massacre through the valley of Lizan,
the inhabitants of the villages around collected such part of
their property as they could carry, and took refuge on the
platform I have just described and on the rock above; hoping
thus to escape the notice of the Kurds, or to be able to
defend, against any numbers, a place almost inaccessible.
Women and young children, as well as men, concealed them-
selves in a spot which the mountain goat could scarcely
reach.* Beder Klian Bey was not long in discovering their
* When amongst the Bakhtiyari, I saw a curious instance of the
agility of the women of the mountains. I occupied an upper room in a
tower, forming one of the comers in the yard of the chiefs harem. I
142 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
retreat ; but being unable to force it, he surrounded the place
with his men, and waited until they should be compelled to
yield. The weather was hot and sultry; the Christians had
brought but small suppUes of water and provisions ; after
three days the first began to fail them, and they offered to
capitulate. The terms proposed by Beder Khan Bey, and
ratified by an oath on the Koran, were their lives on the
surrender of their arms and property. The Kurds were then
admitted to the platform. After they had disarmed their
prisoners, they commenced an indiscriminate slaughter;
until, weary of using their weapons, they hurled the few sur-
vivors from the rocks into the Zab below. Out of nearly one
thousand souls, who are said to have congregated here, only
one escaped.
We had Uttie difficulty in descending to the village ; a
moving mass of stones, skulls, and rubbish carried us rapidly
down the declivity. The Melek, who had but recently been
raised to that rank, his predecessor having been killed by
the Kiu-ds, prepared a simple meal of garas and butter — ^the
only provisions that could be procured. The few stragglers
who had returned to theujformer dwellings collected round
us, and made the usual inquiries after their Patriarch, or
related their misfortunes. As I expressed surprise at the
extent of land aheady cultivated, they told me that the
Kurds of some neighbouring villages had taken possession
of the deserted property, and had sown grain and tobacco in
the spring, which the Tiyari were now compelled to irrigate
and look after.
The sun had scarcely set, when I was driven by swarms
of insects to one of the platforms in the river. A slight
breeze came firom the ravine, and I was able to sleep undis-
turbed.
The bridge across the Zab at Lizan is of basket-work.
was accustomed to lock my door on the outside with a padlock. The
wife of the chief advised me to secure the window also. As I laughed
at the idea of any one being able to enter by it, she ordered one of her
handmaidens to convince me, which she did at once, dragging herself up
in the most marvellous way by the mere irregularities of the bricks.
After witnessing this feat, I could believe any tMng of the activity of the
Kurdish women.
VII.] WICKER BRIDGE OVER THE ZAB, 143
Stakes are firmly fastened together with twigs, forming a
long hurdle, reaching from one side of the river to the other.
The two ends are laid upon beams, resting upon piers and
kept in their places by heavy stones heaped upon them.
Animals, as well as men, are able to cross over this frail
structure, which swings to and fro, and seems ready to give
way at every step. These bridges are of frequent occurrence
in the Tiyari mountains.
As some of the beams had been broken, the bridge of
Lizan formed an acute angle with the stream below and was
A Wicker Bridge across the Zab near Lizan.
scarcely to be crossed by a man on foot. We had con-
sequently to swim the mules and horses, a labour of no slight
trouble and difficulty, as the current was rapid, and the bed
of the river choked with rocks. More than an hour was
wasted in finding a spot sufficiently clear of stones, and in
devising means to induce the animals to enter the water.
We resumed our journey on the opposite side of the valley.
But before leaving Lizan I must mention the- heroic devotion
of some Tiyari girls from the village of Serspeetho, who, as
they were led across the bridge by the Kurds, on their return
144 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
from the great massacre, — preferring death to captivity and
conversion, — threw themselves simultaneously into the Zab,
and were drowned in its waters.
We now entered a valley formed by a torrent which joins
the Zab below Lizan. On the opposite side, but far in the
distance, were the Kurdish villages of the district of Chal,
surrounded by trees and gardens. We passed through the
small Chaldaean village of Shoordh, now a heap of ruins, in-
habited by a few wretched families, whose priest had been
recently put to death by Nur-Ullah Bey, the chief of the
Hakkiari tribes. From Shoordh we descended into a wild
and rocky ravine, opening into the once rich and populous
valley of Raola. We soon found ourselves on the outskirts
of cultivation. A few feet of soil were rescued from the bed
of the torrent, and sown with tobacco and garas. These
straggling plots led us into a series of orchards and gardens
extending to the district of Tkhoma.
We were nearly two hoiu-s in reaching the house of the
Melek.* My party having gradually increased as we rode
amongst the scattered cottages, I was followed by a large
company. Melek Khoshabaf had been apprised of my in-
tended visit; for he met us with the priests and principal
inhabitants at some distance from his dwelling. I was much
struck by his noble carriage and handsome features. He
wore, like the other chiefs, a dress of very gay colours, and a
conical cap of white felt, slightly embroidered at the edges,
and adorned with an eagle's feather. The men who accom-
panied him were mostly tall and well made, and were more
showily dressed than the inhabitants of other villages through
which we had passed. Their heads were shaved, as is
customary amongst the Tiyari tribes, a small knot of hair
being left uncut on the crown, and allowed to fall in a plait
down the back. This tail, with the conical cap, gives them
the appearance of Chinese. The boys, in addition to their
inseparable partridges, carried cross-bows, with which they
molested every small bird that appeared, and almost every
one had an eagle's feather in his cap.
* Literally, King, the title given to the chiefs of Tiyari.
+ A corruption of Khath Shaba, Sunday.
VII.] THE MELEK AND HIS DAUGHTER. 145
We followed the Melek to his house, which stood high
above the torrent on the declivity of the mountain. The
upper, or summer, room was large enough to contain all the
party. The Melek and priests sat on my carpets; the rest
ranged themselves on the bare floor against the walls. The
girls brought me, as usual, baskets of fruit, and then stood
at the entrance of the room. Many of them were very pretty,
but the daughter of the chief, a girl of fourteen, excelled
them all. I have seldom seen a more lovely form. Her
complexion was fair; her features regular; her eyes and hair as
black as jet ; a continual smile played upon her mouth; and
an expression of mingled surprise and curiosity stole over her
face, as she examined my dress, or followed my movements.
Her tresses, unconfined by the coloured kerchief bound
loosely round her head, fell in disorder down her back, reach-
ing to her waist. Her dress was more gay, and neater than
that of the other women, who evidently confessed her beauty
and her rank. I motioned to her to sit down; but that
was an honour only reserved for the mother of the Melek,
who occupied a comer of the room. At length she ap-
proached timidly to examine more closely a pocket compass,
which had excited the wonder of the men.
The threatened invasion of Tkhoma by Beder Khan Bey
was the chief subject of conversation, and caused great ex-
citement amongst the inhabitants of Raola. They calculated
the means of defence possessed by the villagers of the pro-
scribed district; but whilst wishing them success against the
Kurds, they declared their inability to afford them assistance,
for they still trembled at the recollection of the former
massacre, and the very name of the Bohtan chief struck
terror into the hearts of the Tiyari. They entreated me to
devise some mode of delivering them from the danger. * It
is true,' said the Melek, * that when Nur-Ullah Bey joined
Beder Khan Bey in the great massacre, the people of Tkhoma
marched with the Kurds against us; but could they do other-
wise ? — for they feared the chief of Hakkiari. They are
our brothers, and we should forgive them; for the Scriptures
tell us to forgive even our enemies.' This pious sentiment
was re-echoed by all the company.
L
t46 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
Several men, whose wives and daughters were still in
slavery, came to me, thinking that I could relieve them in
their misfortune; and there was scarcely any one present
who had not some tale of grief to relate. Several members
of the family of Melek KJioshaba, including his cousin, to
whom he had succeeded in the chiefship, had been killed in
the massacre. The villages in the valley of Raola having,
however, suffered less than those we had previously visited,
were fast returning to their former prosperity.
The Melek insisted upon accompanying us, with the priests
and principal inhabitants, to the end of the valley. As we
passed through the village we saw the women bathing at
almost every door; nor did they appear at all conscious that
we were near them. This simple and primitive mode of
washing is thus publicly practised amongst all the Chaldaean
tribes, particularly on the Saturday.
Melek Khoshaba accompanied me to a rude monument
raised over the bodies of fifty prisoners, who had been mur-
dered at the time of the invasion, and left me at the entrance
of the village. We had to pass through a narrow and barren
ravine, and a rocky gorge, before entering the district of
Tkhoma. Our path was the bed of the torrent; and the
mountains rising precipitously on either side, shut in a scene
of extraordinary wildness and solitude. This was the only
road by which we could reach Tkhoma, without crossing the
lofty ranges of rocks surrounding it on all other sides. A
resolute body of men might have held the ravine against any
numbers. This was one of the most dangerous places we
had to traverse during our journey. On the heights above
are one or two villages, inhabited by the Apenshai* Kurds,
who are always engaged in hostilities with the Tiyari, and
fall upon such as are crossing the frontiers of Tkhoma. My
party was numerous and well armed, and keeping close to-
gether we travelled on without apprehension.
We emerged suddenly from this wild ravine and saw a
richly cultivated valley before us. Sheep and goats were
browsing on the hill sides, and cattle wandered in the
* By the Kurds tliey are called Pinainish.
VII.] THREATENED INVASION OF TKHOMA, 147
meadows below. These were the first flocks and herds we
had seen in the Chaldaean country, and they showed that
hitherto Tkhoma had escaped the hand of the spoiler. Two
villages occupied opposite sides of the valley; on the right,
Ghissa, on the left, Birijai. We rode to the latter. The houses
are built in a cluster, and not scattered amongst the gardens,
as in Tiyari. We were surrounded by the inhabitants as soon
as we entered the streets, and they vied with one another
in expressions of welcome and offers of hospitality. Kasha
Hormuzd, the principal priest, prevailed upon me to accom-
pany him to a house he had provided, and on the roof of
which carpets were speedily spread. The people were in
great agitation at the report of Beder Khan Bey's projected
march upon Tkhoma. They immediately flocked round us
seeking for news. The men were better dressed than any
Nestorian Chaldaeans I had yet seen. The felt cap was re-
placed by turbans of red and black linen, and these two
favourite colours of the Kurds were conspicuous in their
ample trowsers and embroidered jackets. As they carried
pistols and daggers in their girdles and long guns in their
hands, they could scarcely be distinguished from the Mussul-
man inhabitants of the mountains. The women wore small
embroidered skull caps from beneath which their hair fell
loose or in plaits. Their shirts were richly embroidered,
and round their necks and bosoms were hung coins and
beads.
They were happy in having escaped so long the fana-
ticism and rapacity of the Kurds. But they foresaw their
fate. All was bustle and anxiet}'^; the women were burying
their ornaments and domestic utensils in secure places ; the
men preparing their arms, or making gunpowder. I walked
to the church, where the priests where collecting their books,
and the holy vessels to be hid in the mountains. Amongst
the manuscripts I saw many ancient rituals, forms of prayer,
and versions of the Scripture; the Acts of the Apostles, and
the Epistles on vellum, the first and last leaves wanting, and
without date, but evidently of a very early period; and a
fine copy of the Gospels, Acts, and Epistles also on vellum,
entire, with numerous illuminations, written in the year of
L2
148 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
the Seleucidae 1552 ;* in the time of * Mar Audishio, Patriarch
of the East, and of the Chaldaeans.*
I was much touched by the unaffected hospitality and
simple manners of the two priests, Kashas Hormuzd and
Khoshaba, who entertained me; a third was absent. Their
dress, torn and soiled, showed that they were poorer than
their congregation. They had just returned from the vine-
yards, where they had been toiling during the day; yet they
were treated with reverence and respect; the upper places
were given to them, they were consulted on all occasions, and
no one drew nigh without kissing the hand, scaired by the
plough and the implements of the field.
Almost every house furnished something towards our
evening repast, and a long train of girls and young men
brought us messes of meat, fowls, boiled rice, garas, and
fruit The priests and the principal inhabitants feasted with
us, and there remained enough for my servants, and for the
poor who were collected on the roof of a neighbouring house.
After our meal many of the women came to me, and joined
with the men in debating on their critical position, and in
forming schemes for the security of their families, and the
defence of their village. It was past midnight before the
assembly separated.
The following day being Sunday, we were roused at dawn
to attend the service of the Church. The two priests offici-
ated in white surplices. The ceremonies were short and
simple; a portion of Scripture was read and then interpreted
by Kasha Hormuzd in the dialect in use in the mountains
— few understanding the Chaldaean of the books. f His
* The era of the Seleucidae (the Greek or Alexandrian year, or the era
of contracts, as it is sometimes called) was once in general use amongst
the Christians, and Mussulmans of the East, and is to this day always
employed by the Chaldaeans. It commences in October, B. C. 312 ; ac-
cording to the Chaldseans one year later.
+ The language of the Chaldceans is a Semetic dialect allied to the
Hebrew, Arabic, and S>Tiac, and still called the Chaldani or Chaldee.
In its written form, it bears a close resemblance to the Chaldee of the
book of Daniel. The dialect spoken by the mountain tribes varies
slightly from that used in the villages of the plains ; the differences
arising chiefly from local circumstances. It is an interesting fact that the
Chaldaean spoken in Assyria is almost identical with the language of the
VII.] A SUN DA Y AT TKHOMA . I49
companion chanted the prayers — the congregation kneeling
or standing and joining in the responses. There were no
idle forms or salutations; the people used the sign of the
cross when entering, and bowed when the name of Christ
occurred in the prayers. The sacrament was administered
to all present — men, women, and children partaking of the
bread and wine, and my companion receiving it amongst the
rest. They were disposed to feel hurt at my declining to
join them, until I explained that I did not refuse from any
sectarian prejudice. When the service was ended the con-
gregation embraced one another, as a symbol of brotherly
love and concord,* and left the church. I could not but
contrast these simple and primitive rites with the senseless
mummery, and degrading forms, adopted by the converted*
Chaldaeans of the plains — the unadorned and imageless walls
with the hideous pictures, and monstrous deformities which
encumber the churches of Mosul.
It may not be here out of place to remind the reader of
the peculiar doctrine which has earned for the Chaldaeans
the title of Nestorians, a name probably given to them by
the Roman Catholic Church. The Mussulmans term them
simply * Nasara,' or * the Christians,' whilst they call themselves
* Caldani ' and * Souraiyah,* or in the mountains by the name
of the tribe to which they belong. Although they un-
doubtedly profess the doctrine taught by Nestorius, who is
looked upon as one of the great fathers of their church, they
deny having derived it from him, asserting that such as it is
they received it from the Apostles. It is certain that the
opinions preached by Nestorius had already spread before
his time widely in the East, and were particularly inculcated
in the schools of the Chaldaeans. The most important point
of difference between the Chaldaean and other Christian
churches is the assertion, on the part of the former, of the
Saboeans, or Christians of St. John, as they are vulgarly called, — a
remarkable tribe, who reside in the province of Khuzistan, or Susiana,
and in the districts near the mouth of the Euphrates, and who are pro-
bably descendants of the ancient inhabitants of Babylonia and Chaldaea.
* This custom, it will be remembered, prevailed generally amongst
the primitive Christians. The Roman Catholic Church h^ retained the
remembrance of it in the * Pax.'
I50 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
divisibility and separation of the two persons, as well as of
the two natures, in Christ. This, of course, involves the re-
fusal of the title of * Mother of God ' to the Virgin, which
renders them particularly odious to the Church of Rome, and
is probably the cause of their being accused of more heresies
than they really profess. The profession of faith adopted by
their church, and still repeated twice a day in their prayers,
differs in few respects from the Nicene creed ; and it is evident,
not only from it but from the writings of Nestorius himself,
and of the earliest fathers of the Eastern Church, that there is
nothing to authorise the violent charge of heresy made against
the Chaldaeans by their enemies. It is admitted, on the
other hand, that they have retained in all their purity many
■ of the doctrines and forms of primitive Christianity.
Mosheim, whose impartiality can scarcely be doubted, thus
speaks of them: — * It is to the lasting honour of the Nestorian
sect, that of all the Christian societies established in the East,
they have preserved themselves the most free from the num-
berless superstitions which have found their way into the
Greek and Latin churches.'* A Protestant may, therefore,
wish to learn in what respects they differ, otherwise than in
the doctrine already alluded to, from other Christian sects,
and what their belief and observances really are. The most
important points of difference may be summed up in a few
words. They refuse to the Virgin those titles, and that ex-
aggerated veneration, which were the origin of most of the
superstitions and corruptions of the Romish and Eastern
churches. They deny the doctrine of purgatory, and are
most averse, not only to the worship of images, but even
to their exhibition. Crosses are placed in their churches,
and they are accustomed to make the sign of the cross in
common with other Christians of the East; not, however,
considering this ceremony essential, but rather as a badge of
Christianity and a sign of brotherhood amongst themselves,
scattered as they are amidst men of a hostile faith. They
agree with the reformed church in the rejection of the doctrine
of transubstantiation, and in the distribution of the bread
* * Mosheim, cent. XVI. sect. iii. part L
VI I.] IVES TORI AN NUN, 1 5 1
and wine amongst the communicants. There appear to be
considerable doubts as to the number and nature of their
sacraments; they are generally stated to amount to seven,
and to include baptism, marriage, and ordination. The five
lower grades of the clergy, under the rank of bishop, are
allowed to marry. In the early ages of the church the same
privilege was extended to the bishop and archbishop, and
even to the patriarch. The fasts of the Nestorian Chaldaeans
are numerous and very strictly observed, even fish not being
eaten. There are 152 days in the year on which abstinence
from animal food is enjoined. On Sunday no Nestorian
performs a journey, or does any work.
The vestibule of the church of Birijai was occupied by a
misshapen and decrepit nun. Her bed was a mat in the
comer of the building, and she was cooking her garas on a
small fire near the door. She inquired, with many tears,
after Mar Shamoun, and hung round the neck of my com-
panion when she learnt that he had been living with him.
Vows of chastity are very rarely taken amongst the Nestorian
Chaldaeans; and this woman, whose deformity might have
precluded the hope of marriage, was the sole instance we
met with in the mountains. Convents for either sex are un-
known.
Birijai contained, at the time of my visit, nearly one hun-
dred houses, and Ghissa forty. The inhabitants were com-
paratively rich, possessing numerous flocks, and cultivating
a large extent of land. There were priests, schools, and
churches in both villages.
One of the Meleks of the tribe came early from Tkhoma
Gowaia (Middle Tkhoma), the principal village in the district,
to welcome me to his mountains, and to conduct me to
his house. He explained that, as it was Sunday, the Chal-
daeans did not travel, and consequently the other Meleks
and the principal inhabitants had not been able to meet me.
We took leave of the good people of Birijai, who had
treated us with great hospitality, and followed Melek Putros
up the valley.
To our left was the small Kurdish hamlet of Hayshat,
high up in a sheltered ravine. An uninterrupted line of
152 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
gardens brought us to the church of Tkhoma Gowaia, stand-
ing in the midst of scattered houses, this village being built
like those of Tiyari. Here we found almost the whole tribe
assembled, and in deep consultation on the state of affairs.
We sat in a loft above the church during the greater part of
the day, engaged in discussion on the course to be pursued
to meet the present difficulties, and to defend the valley
against the expected attack of Beder Khan Bey. The men
who were all well armed, declared that they were ready to
die in the defence of their villages ; and that, unless they
were overcome by numbers, they would hold the passes
against the forces of the Kurdish chief. The Kurds, who
inhabited two or three hamlets in Tkhoma, had also assem-
bled. They expressed sympathy for the Christians, and
offered to arm in their behalf After much debate it was
resolved to send at once a deputation to the Pasha of Mosul,
to beseech his protection and assistance. Two priests, two
persons from the families of the Meleks, and two of the
principal inhabitants, were chosen ; and a letter was written
by Kasha Bodaca, one of the most learned and respectable
priests in the mountains. It was a touching appeal, setting
forth that they were faithful subjects of the Sultan, had been
guilty of no offence, and were ready to pay any money, or
submit to any terms, that the Pasha might think fit to exact.
The letter, after having been approved by all present,
and sealed with the seals of the chiefs, was delivered to the
six deputies, who started at once on foot for Mosul. At the
same time no precaution was to be omitted to place the valley
in a state of defence, and to prepare for the approach of the
Kurds.
There were in Tkhoma three Meleks, each chosen from
a different family by the tribe. The principal was Melek
Putros, — a stout, jovial fellow, gaily dressed, and well armed.
His colleagues were of a more sober and more warlike
appearance. There were no signs of poverty among the
people; most of the men had serviceable weapons, and the
women wore gold and silver ornaments. All the young
men carried cross-bows, and were skilful in their use, killing
the small birds as they rested on the trees. A well-armed
VI I.J KASHA BODACA. 153
and formidable body of men might have been collected from
the villages; which, properly directed, could, I have little
doubt, have effectually resisted the invasion of Beder Khan
Bey.
We passed the night on the roof of the church, and rose
early to continue our journey to Baz. The valley and pass,
separating Tkhoma from this district, being at this time of
the year uninhabited, is considered insecure, and we were
accompanied by a party of armed men, furnished by the
Meleks. The chiefs themselves walked with us to the village
of Mezrai, whose gardens adjoin those of Tkhoma Gowaia.
The whole valley, indeed, up to the rocky barrier, closing it
towards the east, is an uninterrupted line of cultivation.
Above the level of the artificial watercourses derived from
the torrent near its source, and irrigating all the lands of the
district, are forests of oaks, clothing the mountains to within
a short distance of their summits. Galls are not so plentiful
here as in Tiyari; they form, however, an article of commerce
with Persia, where they find a better market than in Mosul.
Rice and flax are very generally cultivated, and fruit-trees
abound.
We stopped for a few minutes at Gunduktha, the last
village in Tkhoma, to see Kasha Bodaca, whom we found
preparing, at the request of his congregation, to join the
deputation to the Pasha of Mosul. We took leave of him,
and he started on his journey. He was an amiable, and,
for the mountains, a learned man, greatly esteemed by the
Chaldaean tribes. Being one of the most skilful penmen of the
day, his manuscripts were much sought after for the churches.
He was mild and simple in his manners; and his appear-
ance was marked by that gentleness and unassuming dignity,
which I had found in more than one of the Nestorian
priests.*
The torrent enters the valley of Tkhoma by a very narrow
gorge, through which a road, partly constructed of rough
* Mr. Ainsworth, writing of Kasha Kana of Lizan, observes that he
resembled in his manners and appearance an English clergyman.
Kasha Bodaca was murdered by the chief of Chal shortly after our
visit.
154 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
stones piled up in the bed of the stream, is with difficulty
earned. In the winter, when the rain has swollen the waters,
this entrance must be impracticable; and, even at this time,
we could scarcely drag our mules and horses over the rocks
and through the deep pools in which the torrent abounds.
All signs of cultivation now ceased. Mountains rose on all
sides, barren and treeless. Huge rocks hung over the road,
or towered above us. On their pinnacles, or in their crevices,
a few goats sought a scanty herbage. The savage nature of
the place was heightened by its solitude.
Soon after entering the ravine, we met a shepherd-boy,
dragging after him a sheep killed by the bears; and a little
beyond we found the reeking carcase of a bullock, which
had also fallen a victim to these formidable animals, of
whose depredations we heard continual complaints. I
observed on the mountain sides several flocks of ibex, and
some of our party endeavoured to get within gun-shot; but
after sunrise their watchfulness cannot be deceived, and they
bounded off to the highest peaks, long before the most wary
of our marksmen could approach them.
We were steadily making our way over the loose stones
and slippery rocks when a number of horsemen were seen
coming towards us. They were Kurds, and I ordered my
party to keep close together, that we might be ready to meet
them in case of necessity. As they were picking their way
over the rough ground like ourselves, to the evident risk of
their horses' necks as well as of their own, I had time to
examine them fully as they drew near. In front, on a small,
lean, and jaded horse, rode a tall gaunt figure, dressed in all
the tawdry garments sanctioned by Kurdish taste. A turban
of wonderful capacity, and almost taking within its dimensions
horse and rider, covered his head, which seemed to escape
by a miracle being driven in between his shoulders by the
enormous pressure. From the centre of this mass of many
coloured rags rose a high conical cap of white felt This
load appeared to give an unsteady rolling gait to the thin
carcase below, which could with difficulty support it. A
most capacious pair of claret-coloured trowsers bulged out
{ tbe sides of the horse, and well nigh stretched from
VII.] MUTESELLIM OF NUR-ULLAH BEY,. 155
side to side of the ravine. Every shade of red and yellow
was displayed in his embroidered jacket and cloak; and in
his girdle were weapons of extraordinary size, and most
fanciful workmanship. His eyes were dark and piercing,
and overshadowed by shaggy eyebrows ; his nose aquiline,
his cheeks hollow, his face long, and his beard black and
bushy. Notwithstanding the ferocity of his countenance,
and its unmistakable expression of villany, it would have
been difficult to repress a smile at the absurdity of the figure
and the disparity between it and the miserable animal con-
cealed beneath. This was a Kurdish dignitary of the first
rank ; a man well known for deeds of oppression and blood;
the Mutesellim, or Lieutenant-Governor under Nur-Ullah Bey,
the chief of Hakkiari. He was followed by a small body
of well-armed men, resembling their master in the motley
character of their dress ; which, however, was somewhat re-
duced in the proportions, as became an inferiority of rank.
The cavalcade was brought up by an individual differing
considerably from those who had preceded. His smooth and
shining chin, and the rich glow of raki* upon his cheeks,
were undoubted evidences of Christianity. He had the
accumulated obesity of all his companions ; and rode, as
became him, upon a diminutive donkey, which he urged
over the loose stones with the point of a claspknife. His
dress did not differ much from that of the Kurds, except
that, instead of warHke weapons, he carried an inkhom in
his_ girdle. This was Bircham, the *goulama d'Mira,'t as
he was commonly called, — a half renegade Christian, who
was the steward, banker, and secretary of the Hakkiari
chief.
I saluted the Mutesellim, as we elbowed each other in
the narrow pass; but he did not seem inclined to return my
salutation, otherwise than by a curl of the lip and an in-
distinct grunt, which he left me to interpret in any way I
thought proper. It was of no use quarrelling with him, so I
passed on. We had not proceeded far, when one of his
* Ardent spirits, extracted from raisins or dates.
t The servant of the Mir or Prince.
156 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
horsemen returned to us, and called away Yakoub Rais,
lonunco, and one of the men of Tkhoma. Looking back,
I observed them all in deep consultation with the Kurdish
chief, who had dismounted to wait for them. I rode on,
and it was nearly an hour before the three Chaldaeans re-
joined us. lonunco's eyes were starting out of his head with
fright, and the expression of his face was one of amusing
horror. Even Yakoub's usual grin had given way to a look
of alarm. The man of Tkhoma was less disturbed. Yakoub
began by entreating me to return at once to Tkhoma and
Tiyari. The Mutesellim, he said, had used violent threats ;
declaring that as Nur-Ullah Bey had served one infidel who
had come to spy out the country, and teach the Turks its
mines, alluding to Schultz,* so he would serve me ; and had
sent off a man to the Hakkiari chief to apprise him of my
presence in the mountains. * We must turn back at once,*
exclaimed Yakoub, seizing the bridle of my horse, *or.
Wallah ! that Kurdish dog will murder us all.* I had formed
a different plan; and, calming the fears of my party as well as
I was able, I continued my journey towards Baz. lonunco,
however, racked his brain for every murder that had been
attributed to Nur-Ullah Bey, and at each new tale of horror
Yakoub turned his mule, and vowed he would go back to
Asheetha.
We rode for nearly four hours through tliis wild, solitary
valley. My people were almost afraid to speak, and huddled
together as if the Kvurds were coming down upon us. Two
or three of the armed men scaled the rocks, and ran on before
us as scouts ; but the solitude was only broken by an eagle
soaring above our heads, or by a wild goat which occasionally-
dashed across our path. In the spring and early summer,
these now desolate tracts are covered with the tents of the
people of Tkhoma and of the Kurds, who find on the slopes
a rich pasture for their flocks.
It was mid-day before we reached the foot of the mountain
dividing us from the district of Baz. The pass we had to
* This unfortunate gentleman, who was employed by the French
Government on a scientific mission in Kurdistan, was murdered by Nur-
Ullah Bey.
VII.] CUSTOMS OF THE NESTORIANS, 157
cross is one of the highest in the Chaldsean country, and at
this season there was snow upon it. The ascent was long,
steep, and toilsome. We were cornpelled to walk, and, even
without our weight, the mules could scarcely climb the ac-
clivity. But we were well rewarded for our labour when
we gained the summit. A scene of extraordinary grandeur
opened upon us. At our feet stretched the valley of Baz
— its villages and gardens but specks in the distance. Beyond
the valley, and on all sides of us, was a sea of mountains
— peaks of every form and height, some snow-capped, others
bleak and naked; the furthermost rising in the distant regions
of Persia. I counted nine distinct mountain ranges. Two
rocks formed a kind of gateway on the crest of the pass, and
I sat between them for some minutes, gazing upon the sublime
prospect before us.
The descent was rapid and dangerous, and so precipitous
that a stone might almost have been dropped on the church
of Ergub, first visible like a white spot beneath us. We passed
a rock, called the * Rock of Butter,' from a custom, perhaps
of pagan origin, existing amongst the Chaldaean shepherds,
of placing upon it, as an offering, a piece of the first butter
made in early spring. As we approached the village, we
found several of the inhabitants labouring in the fields.
They left their work, and followed us. The church stands
at some distance from the houses; and, when we reached it,
the villagers compelled all my servants to dismount and to
pass it on foot, including Ibrahim Agha, who muttered a
curse upon the infidels as he took his foot out of the stirrup.
The Christians raised their turbans, — a mark of reverence
always shown when a church is passed.
The houses of Ergub are built in a group. We stopped
in a small open space in the centre of them, and I ordered
my carpet to be spread near a fountain, shaded by a cluster
of trees. We were soon surrounded by the inhabitants of
the village. The Melek and the priest seated themselves
with me ; the rest stood round in a circle. The men were
well dressed and armed ; and, like those of Tkhoma, they
could scarcely be distinguished from the Kurds. Many of the
women were pretty enough to be entitled to the front places
158 NIXEVEH AXD ITS REMAIXS, [Chap.
they had taken in the crowd. They wore silver ornaments
and beads on their foreheads, and were dressed in jackets
and trowsers of gay colours.
After the letter of the Patriarch had been read, and the
inquiries concerning him fully satisfied, the conversation
turned upon the expected expedition of Beder Khan Bey
against Tkhoma, and the movements of Nur-Ullah Bey,
events causing great anxiety to the people of Baz. Although
this district had been long under the chief of Hakkiari,
paying an annual tribute to him, and having been even
subjected to many vexatious exactions, and to acts of op-
pression and violence, yet it had never been disarmed, nor
exposed to a massacre such as had taken place in Ti\*ari.
There w^as now cause to fear that the fanatical fur}*^ of Beder
Khan Bey might be turned upon it as well as upon Tkhoma ;
and the only hope of the inhabitants was in the friendly
interference of NurUllah Bey, whose subjects they now pro-
fessed themselves to be. They had, however, begun to con-
ceal their church -books and property, in anticipation of a
disaster.
Both the Melek and the priest pressed me to accept their
hospitality. I preferred the house of the latter, to which we
moved in the afternoon. My h6st was suffering much from
the ague, and was moreover old and infirm. I gave him a
few medicines to stop his fever, for which he was ver}' grate-
ful. He accompanied me to the church ; but the bare walls
alone were standing. The books and furniture had been
partly carried a>\^y by the Kurds, and partly removed for
security by the people of the village.
After the events of the morning I had made up my mind
to proceed at once to Nur-Ullah Bey, whose residence AX'as
only a short day's journey distant ; but on communicating
my intention to Mr. Hormuzd Rassam, he became so alanned,
and so resolutely declared that he would return alone rather
than trust himself in the hands of the Mir of Hakkiari, that
I was forced to give up my plan. In the present state of
the mountains, there were only t^o courses open to me :
either to visit the chief, who would probably, after learning
the object of my journey, receive and assist me as he had
VH.] APPREHENSIONS OF THE PEOPLE. 159
done Dr. Grant, or to retrace my steps without delay. I
decided upon the latter with regret, as I was thus unable to
visit Jelu and Diz, the two remaining Christian districts.
Without communicating my plans to any one, I sent for two
of Nur-Ullah Bey's attendants who happened to be in the
village, and induced them, by a small present, to take a
letter to their master. They were led to believe that it was
my intention to visit him on the following day, and I sent a
Christian to see that they took the road to Julamerik, his
residence. The treachery and daring of Nur-Ullah Bey were
so well known, that I thought it most prudent to deceive
him, in case he might wish to waylay me on my return to
Tkhoma. I started therefore before daybreak, without any
one in the village being aware of my departure, and took the
road by which we had reached Baz the day before.
We crossed the pass as quickly as we were able, hurried
through the long barren valley, and reached Gunduktha,
without meeting any one during our journey, to the no small
comfort of my companions, who could not conceal their
alarm during tiie whole of our morning's ride.
We stopped to breakfast at Gunduktha, and saw the
Meleks at Tkhoma Gowaia. The people of this village had
felt much anxiety on our account, as the Mutesellim had
passed the night there, and had used violent threats against
us. I learnt that he was going to Chal, to settle some
differences which had arisen between the Kurds of that
district and of Hakkiari, and that Bircham had been sent
to Tkhoma by Nur-Ullah Bey to withdraw his family and
friends ; * for this time,' said the chief, *Beder Khan Bey
intends to finish with the Christians, and will not make slaves
for consuls and Turks to liberate.'
As I was desirous of leaving Tkhoma as soon as possible,
I refused the proffered hospitality of Melek Putros, and rode
on to Birijai.
Being unwilling to return to Asheetha by Raola and the
villages we had already visited, I determined — notwith-
standing the account given by the people of Tkhoma, of the
great difficulty of the passes between us and the Zab — to cross
the mountain of Khouara, which rises at the back of Birijai.
i6o NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
Their descriptions had not been exaggerated. After dragging
ourselves for two hours over loose stones, and along narrow
ledges, we reached the summit, weary and breathless. From
the crest we overlooked the whole valley of Tkhoma, with
its smiling villages, bounded to the east by the lofty range of
Kareetha; to the west I recognised the peaks of Asheetha,
the valley of the Zab, Chal, and the heights inhabited by
the Apenshai Kurds.
The mountain of KJiouara is the Zoma — or summer
pasture-grounds — of the inhabitants of Ghissa and Birijai.
As we ascended we passed many rude sheds and caverns,
half-blocked up at the entrance with loose stones — places in
which the flocks are kept during the night, to preserve them
from wild animals. There is a fountain at a short distance
from the top of the pass, and a few trees near it ; but the
mountain is otherwise naked, and, at this time of the year,
without verdure of any kind.
An hour's rapid descent brought us to the Tiyari village
of Be-Alatha, — a heap of ruins on the two (sides of a valley.
The few surviving inhabitants were in extreme poverty, and
the small-pox was raging amongst them. The water-courses
destroyed by the Kurds had not been repaired, and the
fields were mostly uncultivated. Even the church had
not yet been rebuilt; and as the trees which had been cut
down were still lying across the road, and the charred timber
still encumbered the gardens, the place had a most desolate
appearance. We were hospitably received by a Shamasha,
or deacon ; whose children, suffering from the prevailing
disease, and covered with discoloured blains, crowded into
the wretched cottage. Women and children, disfigured by
the malignant fever, came to me for medicines; but it was
beyond my power to reheve them. Our host, as well as the
rest of the inhabitants, was in extreme poverty. Even a
little garas, and rancid butter, could with difficulty be col-
lected by contributions from all the houses, and I was at a
loss to discover how the people of Be-Alatha lived. Yet
the deacon was cheerful and contented, dwelling with resig-
nation upon the misfortunes that had befallen his village,
and the misery of his family.
VII.] PLIGHT OF IBRAHIM AGHA. i6x
On leaving the village, now containing only ten families, I
was accosted by an old priest, who had been waiting until
we passed, and who entreated me to eat bread under his
roof. As his cottage was distant, I was compelled to dechne
his hospitahty, though much touched by his simple kindness
and mild and gentle manners. Finding that I would not go
with him, he insisted upon accompanying us to the ne*t
village, and took with him three or four sturdy mountaineers
to assist us on our journey; for the roads, he said, were
nearly impassable.
Without the assistance of the good priest our attempt to
reach Marth d*Kasra would certainly have been hopeless.
More than once we turned back in despair, before the slip-
pery rocks and precipitous ascents. Ibrahim Agha, embar-
rassed by his capacious boots, which, made after the fashion
of the Turks, could have contained the extremities of a whole
family, was more beset with difficulties than the rest of the
party. When he attempted to ride a mule, unused to a pack-
saddle, he invariably slid over the tail of the animal, and lay
sprawling on the ground, to the great amusement of Yakoub
Rais, with whom his adventures were a never failing source of
anecdote in the village assemblies. If he walked, either his
boots became wedged in the crevices of the rocks, or filled
with gravel, to his no small discomfort At length, in attempt-
ing to cross a bed of loose stones, he lost all presence of
mind, and remained fixed in the middle, fearfiil to advance
or retreat. The rubbish yielded to his grasp, and he looked
down into a black abyss, towards which he found himself
gradually sinking with the avalanche he had put in motion. *
There was certainly enough to frighten any Turk, and
Ibrahim Agha climg to the face of the declivity — the picture
of despair. * What's the Kurd doing?* cried a Tiyari, with
whom aU Mussulmans were Kurds, and who was waiting to
pass on. *Is there anything here to turn a man's face pale?
This is dashta, dashta' (a plain, a plain). Ibrahim Agha, who
guessed fi'om the words Kurds and * dashta,' the meaning of
which he had learnt, the purport of the Christian's address,
almost forgot his danger in his rage and indignation. * Ge-
hannem wi th your dashta !' cried he, still clinging to the moving
M
i62 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
stones, * and dishonour upon your wife and mother. Oh !
that I could only get one way or the other to show this
infidel what it is to laugh at the beard of an Osmanli, and
to call him a Kurd in the bargain !' With the assistance of
the mountaineers he was at length rescued from his perilous
position, but not restored to good humour. By main force
the mules were dragged over this and similar places ; the
Tiyaris seizing them by the halter and tail, and throwing
them on their sides.
We were two hours struggling through these difficulties
before reaching Marth d'Kasra, formerly a large village,
but now containing only forty houses.* Its appearance,
however, was more flourishing than that of Be-Alatha ; and
the vineyards, and gardens surrounding it, had been carefully
•trimmed and irrigated. Above Marth d'Kasra, on a lofty
overhanging rock, is the village of Lagippa, reduced to ten
houses. It is not accessible to beasts of burden. I rode to
the house of a priest, and sat there whilst the mules were
resting.
The road between Marth d'Kasra and Chonba was no
less difficult and dangerous than that we had taken in the
morning. The gardens of the former village extend to the
Zab, and we might have followed the valley ; but the men
who were with us preferred the shorter road over the mountain
that we might reach Chonba before night-fall.
The villages in the valley of the Zab suffered more from
the Kiurds than any other part of Tiyari. Chonba was
almost deserted, its houses and churches a mass of ruins,
and its gardens and orchards uncultivated and neglected.
There was no roof under which we could pass the night ;
and we were obliged to spread our carpets under a cluster
of walnut trees, near a clear and most abundant spring.
Beneath these trees was pitched the tent of Beder Khan Bey
after the great massacre ; and here he received Melek Ismail
when delivered a prisoner into his hands. Yakoub Rais, who
had been present at the murder of the unfortunate chief of
Tiyari, thus described the event After heading his people
in their defence of the pass which led into the upper districts,
* In the village were two churches and two priests.
VII.] HEROISM OF MELEK ISMAIL. 163
and performing prodigies of valour, Melek Ismail, his thigh
broken by a musket-ball, was carried by a few followers to a
cavern in a secluded ravine, where he might have escaped
the search of his enemies, had not a woman, to save her life,
betrayed his retreat. He was dragged down the mountain
with savage exultation, and brought before Beder Khan Bey.
Here he fell upon the ground. * Wherefore does the infidel
sit before me ]' exclaimed the ferocious chief, who had seen
his broken limb ; * and what dog is this that has dared to shed
the blood of true believers]* * O Mir,' replied Melek Ismail,
still undaunted, and partly raising himself, *this arm has
taken the lives of twenty Kurds ; and, had God spared me,
as many more would have fallen by it* Beder KJhan Bey
rose and walked to the Zab, making a sign to his attendants
to bring the Melek to him. By his directions they held the
Christian chief over the river, and, severing his head from
his body with a dagger, cast them into the stream.
All the family of the Melek had distinguished themselves,
at the time of the invasion, by their courage. His sister,
standing by his side, slew four men before she fell mortally
wounded.
Over the spring, where we had alighted, formerly grew a
cluster of gigantic walnut trees, celebrated in Tiyari for their
size and beauty. They had been cut down by the Kurds, and
their massive trunks were still stretched on the ground. A
few smaller trees had been left standing, and afforded us
shelter. The water, gushing from the foot of an overhanging
rock, was pure and refreshing; but the conduits, which had
once carried it into the fields, having been destroyed, a
small marsh had been formed around the spring. The place
consequently abounded in musquitoes, and we were com-
pelled to keep up large fires during the night, to escape their
attacks.
On the following morning we ascended the valley of the
Zab, for about three miles, to cross the river. The road led
into the district of upper Tiyari, its villages being visible
from the valley, perched on the summits of isolated rocks, or
half concealed in sheltered ravines. The scenery is sublime.
The river forces itself through a deep and narrow gorge, the
i64 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
mountains rising one above the other in wild confusion,
naked, and barren, except where the mountaineers have col-
lected the scanty soil, and surrounded their cottages with
gardens and vineyards,
A bridge of wicker-work at this part of the river was in
better repair than that of Lizan, and we crossed our mules
without difl5culty. Descending along the banks of the Zab
for a short distance, we struck into the mountains, and
passing through Kona Zawi and Bitti, two Kiurdish villages
buried in orchards, reached Serspeetho about mid-day. Wc
sat for two hours in the house of the priest, who received ns
very hospitably. Out of eighty families thirty have alone
survived; the rest had been utterly destroyed. The two
churches were still in ruins, and but a few cottages had as
yet been rebuilt In the afternoon we resumed our journey,
and crossing a high and barren mountain, descended into the
valley of Asheetha.
As I was desirous of visiting some copper mines, described
to me by the people of the district, I engaged Kasha
Hormuzd, and one Daoud, who had been a workman at
Nimroud, to accompany me. We left Asheetha, followed
by Yakoub Rais, the priests and principal inhabitants, who
took leave of us at some distance from the village. We chose
a different road from that we had followed on entering the
mountains, and thus avoided a most precipitous ascent
Descending into the valley, leading from Berwari to Asheetha,
we came upon a large party of travellers, whom we at first
took for Kurds. As they discharged their gims, and stopped
in the middle of a thicket of rushes growing in the bed of the
torrent, we approached them. They proved to be Nestorian
Chaldaeans returning from Mosul to the mountains. Amongst
them, I found Kasha Oraho* a learned and worthy priest,
who had fled from Asheetha at the time of the massacre.
On account of his erudition, intimate knowledge of the
political condition of the tribes, and acquaintance with the
tenets and ceremonies of the Chaldaean church, he had acted
as secretary to Mar Shamoun during his exile. Nearly three
* A corruption of Auraham, Abraham.
VII.] COPPER MINES. 165
years had elapsed since he had quitted his mountains, and
he pined for his native air. Against the advice of his friends
he had determined to leave the plains, and he was now on
his return, with his wife and son, to Tiyari. I sat with him
for a few minutes, and we parted never to meet again. A
few days afterwards, Beder Khan Bey and his hordes de-
scended into Asheetha. Fresh deeds of violence recalled the
scenes of bloodshed to which the poor priest had formerly
been a witness; and he died of grief, bewailing the miserable
condition of the Christian tribes.
Leaving the valley we had ascended on our approach to
Tiyari, we entered the mountains to the right, and after a
rapid ascent, found ourselves in a forest of oaks. Our guides
were some time in discovering the mouth of the mine, which
was only known to a few of the mountaineers. At a distance
from the entrance, copper ores were scattered in abundance
amongst the loose stones. I descended with some difficulty,
and saw many galleries running in various directions, all
more or less blocked up with rubbish and earth, much of
which we had to remove before I could explore the interior
of the mine. Nobody was able to inform me by whom these
galleries had been made, and the mines had been last worked.
They may date back from the Assyrian period. We now
entered a deep valley, having the district of Holamoun and
Geramoun on our right, and rode for five hours through a
thick forest of oak, beech, and other mountain trees. We
passed a few encampments of Kurds, who had chosen some
lawn in a secluded dell to pitch their black tents ; but we
saw no villages until we reached Challek. Near our path, as
we descended to this place, I observed an extensive ruin of
substantial masonry of square stones. I was unable to learn
that any tradition attached to the remains; nor could I
ascertain their name, or determine the nature of the building.
It was evidently a very ancient work, and may have been an
Assyrian fort to command the entrance into the mountains.
The pass is called Kesta, from a Kurdish village of that
name.
Challek is a large village, inhabited partly by Chaldaeans
and partly by Kurds. It contains about fifteen families of
i66 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
Christians, who have a church and a priest The gardens
are very extensive and well irrigated, and the houses are
almost concealed in a forest of fruit-trees. We passed the
night under the roof of the Kiayah, and were hospitably
entertained.
In the morning we rode for some time along the banks of
the Khabour, and about five hours and a half from Challek
forded the Supna, one of its confluents. We stopped at
the Kurdish village of Ourmeli during the middle of the
day, and found there a Su-bashi — a kind of superintendent
tax-gatherer — from Mosul, who received me in a manner
worthy the dignity of both. He was dressed in an extra-
ordinary assortment of Osmanlu and Kurdish garments, the
greater part of which had been, of course, robbed from the
inhabitants of the district placed under his care. He treated
me with sumptuous hospitality, at the expense of the Kurds,
to whom he proclaimed me a particular friend of the Vizir,
and a person of very exalted worth. He brought, himself,
the first dish of pillau, which was followed by soups, chicken-
kibaubs, honey, yaghort, cream, fruit, and a variety of Kurd-
ish luxuries. He refused to be seated, and waited upon me
during the repast As it was evident that all this respect-
ful attention, on the part of so great a personage, was not
intended to be thrown away, when he retired I collected
a few of the Kurds, and, obtaining their confidence by pay- '
ing for my breakfast, soon learnt from them that my host had
dealt so hardly with the villages in his jurisdiction, that the
inhabitants, driven to despair, had sent a deputation to lay
their grievances before the Pasha. This explained the
fashion of my reception, which I could scarcely attribute to
my own merits. As I anticipated, my host came to me
before I left, and commenced a discourse on the character
of Kurds in general, and on the way of governing them.
* Wallah, Billah, O Bey!' said he, * these Kurds are no
Mussulmans ; they are worse than unbelievers ; they are
nothing but thieves and murderers ; they will cut a man's
throat for a para. You will know what to tell His Highness
when he asks you about them. They are beasts that must
be driven by the bit and the spur ; give them too much bar-
VII.] A HOLY SHEIKH, 167
ley,' continuing the simile, *and they will get fat, and
vicious, and dangerous. No, no ; you must take away the
barley, and leave them only the straw.' *You have, no
doubt,' I observed, eyeing his many-coloured Kurdish cloak,
* taken care that as little be left them to fatten upon as pos-
sible.' *I am the lowest of His Highness's servants,* he
replied, scarcely suppressing a broad grin ; * but, neverthe-
■ less, God knows that I am not the least zealous in his
service.' It was at any rate satisfactory to find that, in the
Su-bashi's system of government, Kurds and Christians
were placed on an equal footing, and that the Mussulmans
themselves now tasted of the miseries they had so long
inflicted with impunity upon others.
We soon crossed the valley of Amadiyah, and following the
high road between Daoudiyah and Mosul, entered some
low hills thickly set with Kurdish villages. In Kuremi,
through which we passed, there dwells a very holy Sheikh,
who enjoys a great reputation for sanctity and miracles
throughout Kurdistan. He was seated in the Iwan, or
open chamber, of a very neat house, built, kept in repair,
and continually white-washed by the inhabitants of the place.
A beard, white as snow, fell almost to his waist; and he
wore a turban and long gown of spotless white linen. He
was almost blind, and sat rocking himself to and fro, fingering
his rosary. He keeps a perpetual Ramazan, never eating
between dawn and sunset On a slab, near him, was a row
of water-jugs of every form, ready for use when the sun went
down. Ibrahim Agha, who was not more friendly to the
Kurds than the Su-bashi, treated the Sheikh to a most undig-
nified epithet as he passed ; which, had it been overheard
by the people of the village, might have led to hostilities.
Although I might not have expressed myself so forcibly as
the Cawass, I could not but concur generally in his opinion,
when reflecting that this man, and some others of the same
class, had been the chief cause of the massacres of the un-
fortunate Christians; and that, at that moment, his son.
Sheikh Tahar,* was urging Beder Khan Bey to prove his
* This fanatic, who was one of Beder Khan Bey's principal advisers,
when entering Mosul, was accustomed to throw a veil over his face, that
i68 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
religious zeal by shedding anew the blood of the Nestorians.
We stopped for the night in the large CathoHc Chaldaean
village of Mungayshi, containing above forty Christian houses,
a new church, and two priests.
A pass, over a richly wooded range of hills, leads from
Mungayshi into a fertile plain, watered by several streams,
and occupied by many Kurdish villages. Beyond, the
mountains are naked and most barren. We wandered for
some hours amongst pinnacles, through narrow ravines, and
over broken rocks of sandstone, all scattered about in the
wildest confusion. Not a blade of vegetation was to be
seen ; the ground was parched by the sun, and was here
and there blackened by volcanic action. We came to
several hot, sulphurous springs, bubbling up in the valley,
and forming large pools. In the spring the Kurds and the
inhabitants of the surrounding villages congregate near these
reservoirs, and pitch their tents for nearly a month to bathe
in the waters, which have a great reputation for medicinal
qualities.
A long defile brought us to the town of Dohuk, formerly a
place of some importance, but now nearly in ruins. It is
built en an island formed by a small stream, and probably
occupies an ancient site. Its castle, a mud building with
turrets, was held for some time, by the hereditary Kurdish
chief of the place, against Injeh Bairakdar Mohammed
Pasha ; but was reduced, and has since been inhabited by a
Turkish governor. Ismail Bey, the Mutesellim, received me
very civilly, and I breakfasted with him. The son of a
neighbouring Kurdish chief was visiting the Bey. He was
dressed in most elaborately embroidered garments, had
ponderous jewelled rings in his ears, carried enormous
weapons in his girdle, and had stuck in his turban a pro-
fiision of marigolds and other flowers. He was a handsome,
intelligent boy ; but, young as he might be, he was already
a precocious pupil of Sheikh Tahar ; and when I put him
upon a religious topic, he entered most gravely into an
his sight might not be polluted by Christians, and other impurities in the
place. He exercises an immense influence over the Kurdish population,
who look upon him as a saint and worker of miracles.
VII.l
ASSYRIAN DEITIES.
169
argument to prove the obligation imposed upon Mussulmans
to exterminate the unbelievers, supporting his theological
views by very apt quotations from the Koran.
My horses, which had been §ent from Amadiyah, were
waiting for me here ; and, leaving our jaded mules, we pro-
ceeded to the Christian village of Malthaiyah, about one
hour beyond, and in the same valley as Dohuk. Being anxious
to visit some Assyrian rock-sculptures near this place, I took
a peasant with me and rode to the foot of a neighbouring
hill A short walk up a very difficult ascent brought me to
the monum*ents.
Four tablets have been cut in the rock, each occupied
by nine figures. The same subject is represented in
each bas-relief, and appears to be an adoration of the gods
by two kings. The first god wears the square homed cap,
surmounted by a point, or fleur-de-lys ; holds a ring in one
hand, and a thong or snake in the other, and stands on two
animals, a bull and a kind of gryphon, or lion with the head
of an eagle, but without wings. The
second divinity is beardless, also carries
a ring, and is seated on a chair, the
arms and lower parts of which are sup.
ported by human figures with tails, and
by birds with human heads. The whole
rests on two animals, a lion and a bull.
The third divinity resembles the first,
and stands on a winged bull. The four
following have stars with six rays on the
horned cap. The first of them has a
ring in one hand, and stands on a
gryphon without wings ; the second also
holds a ring, and stands on a' horse
caparisoned as in the sculptures of
Khorsabad ; the third wields an object
precisely similar to the conventional Tablet at Malthaiyah.
thunderbolt of the Greek Jove, and is supported by a winged
lion ; the fourth is beardless, carries a ring, and stands on a
lion without wings.
The two royal figures, probably representing the same king.
Assyrian Deity. On a Rock
Table
I70
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
who are facing the divinities, have one hand raised, and
bear an object resembling a mace, usually carried by the
monarch when engaged in
religious ceremonies.
All the tablets have
suflfered much from ex-
posure to the atmosphere,
and one has been almost
destroyed by the entrance
into a tomb, which' was
probably cut fn the rock
at a period long subse-
quent to the Assyrian
empire.
The details in these
bas-reliefs are similar in
character to those on the
later Assyrian monuments,
and are interesting in
many respects. The
thrones or arm-chairs,
supported by animals
and human figures,
resemble those of the
ancient Egyptians,
and of the monu-
ments of Kouyunjik,
Khorsabad, and Per-
sepolis. They also re-
mind us of the descrip-
tion of the throne of
Solomon, which had
* stays (or arms) on
either side on the
place of the seat, and
ttuo lions stood beside
Assyrian Chair. ^z ^ a j j. i
the stays. And twelve
lions stood there, on the one side and on the other upon
the six steps/ *
* I Kings, X. 12, 20.
VII.] TOMB OF NAHUM. 171
I returned to the village after sunset. My Cawass and
servants had established themselves for the night on the roof
of the church, and the Kiayah had prepared a very sub-
stantial repast The inhabitants of Malthaiyah are Catho-
lic Chalda^ans, their conversion not dating many years. The
greater part joined us in the evening.
Next morning we rode over a dreary plain to Alkosh. In
a defile, through the hills behind the village, I observed seve-
ral rock-tombs, — excavations similar to those of Malthaiyah ;
some having rude ornaments above the entrance, the door-
ways of others being simply square holes in the rock.*
Alkosh is a large Christian village. The inhabitants, who
were formerly Nestorian Chaldaeans, have been converted
to Roman Catholicism. It contains, according to a very
general tradition, the tomb of Nahum the prophet — the
Alkoshite, as he is called in the introduction to his pro-
phecies. It is a place held in great reverence by Moham-
medans and Christians, but especially by Jews, who keep
the building in repair, and flock to it in great numbers at
certain seasons of the year. The tomb is a simple plaster
case or sarcophagus, covered with green cloth, and standing
at the upper end of a large chamber. On the walls of the
room are pasted slips of paper, upon which are written,
in distorted Hebrew characters, religious exhortations, and
the dates and particulars of the visits of various Jewish
families. The house containing the tomb is a modem
building. There are no inscriptions, nor fragments of any
antiquity about the place ; and I am not aware how long
the tradition connected with Nahum has attached to the
village of Alkosh,t and whether it is of Christian or Jewish
origin.
* These rock-tombs abound in the mountams of Kurdistan. It is
doubtful to what period they belong, but there is no proof that they are
as ancient as the Assyrian period. I am inclined to assign them to the
time of the Arsacian or Sassanian dynasties of Persia.
+ According to St. Jerome, El Kosh or El Kosha, the birthplace of
the prophet, was a village in Galilee; and his tomb was shown at
Bethogabra, near Enmiaus. As his prophecies were written after the
captivity of the ten tribes, and apply exclusively to Nineveh, the tra-
dition which points to the village in Assyria as the place of his death, is
not without weight. It is not, however, mentioned by Benjamin of
172 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
After visiting the tomb, I rode to the convent of Rabban
Hormuzd, built on the almost perpendicular sides of lofty
rocks, enclosing a small recess or basin, out of which there
is only one outlet, — a narrow and precipitous ravine, leading
abruptly into the plains. The spot is well suited {o solitude
and devotion. Half buried in naked crags, the biulding can
scarcely be distinguished from the natural pinnacles by
which it is surrounded. There is scarcely a blade of vegeta-
tion to be seen, except a few olive trees, encouraged, by the
^tender care of the monks, to struggle with the barren soil.
Around the convent, in almost every accessible part of the
mountain, are a multitude of chambers cut in the rocks, said
to have once served as retreats for a legion of hermits, and
from which most probably were ejected the dead, to make
room for the living ; for they appear to have been, at some
remote period, places of burial. The number of them must
at one time have been very considerable. They are now
rapidly disappearing, as the rocks are crumbling away, and
have been so doing for centuries. Still the sides of the ra-
vine are in some places honeycombed by them.
The hermits, who may once have inhabited the place,
have left no successors. A lonely monk from the convent
may occasionally be seen clambering over the rocks ; but
otherwise the solitude is seldom disturbed by the presence
of a human being.
The ascent to the convent, from the entrance of the ravine,
is partly up a flight of steps rudely constructed of loose
stones, and partly by a narrow pathway cut in the rock.
We were, therefore, obliged to dismount, and to leave our
horses in a cavern at the foot of the mountain.
Rabban Hormuzd was formerly in the possession of the
Nestorian Chaldaeans; but has been appropriated by the Ca-
tholics since the conversion to Rome of the inhabitants of
Alkosh, Tel Kef, and other large villages of the plain. It is
said to have been founded by one of the early Chaldaean
patriarchs, in the latter part of the fourth century. The
Tudela, who does not appear to have visited Alkosh. Had the tomb
been a place of pilgrimage for the Jews at the period of his journey, he
could scarcely have been at Mosul without going there, and describhig it.
VII.] GOURIEL AND MY CAWASS. 173
saint, to whom the convent is dedicated, is much venerated
by the Nestorians, and was, according to tradition, a Chris-
tian martyr, and the son of a king of Persia. The convent
is partly excavated in the rock, and partly constructed of
well-cut stone. Since it was plundered by the Kurds, under
the Bey of Rowandiz, no attempt has been made to restore
the rich ornaments which once decorated the chapel and
principal halls. The walls are now naked and bare, except
where hung with a few hideous pictures of saints and holy
families, presented and stuck up by the Italian monks who
occasionally visit the place. In the chapel are the tombs of
several Patriarchs of the Chaldaean church, buried here long
before the secession of a part of it to Rome, and whose
title, carved upon the monuments, is always * Patriarch of
the Chaldaeans of the East' * Six or eight half-famished
monks reside in the building. They depend for their sup-
plies, which are scanty enough, upon the faithful of the
surrounding country.
It was night before we reached the large Catholic village
of Tel Kef. I had sent a horseman in the morning to ap-
prise the people of my intended visit; and Gouriel, the
Kiayah, with several of the principal inhabitants, had as-
sembled to receive me. As we approached they emerged
from a dark recess, where they had probably been waiting
for some time. They carried a few wax lights, which served
as an illumination, and whose motion, as they advanced,
was so unsteady, that there could be no doubt of the
condition of the bearers.
Gouriel and his friends reeled forwards towards my Cawass,
who chanced to be the first of the party ; and beUeving him
to be me, they fell upon him, kissing his hands and feet, and
clinging to his dress. Ibrahim Agha struggled hard to ex-
tricate himself, but in vain. * The Bey is behind,' roared he.
^ Allah ! Allah ! will no one deliver me from these drunken
infidels \ ' Rejoicing in the mistake, I concealed myself
♦ The seal used by Mar Shamoun bears the same title; and the
Patriarch so styles himself in all public documents. It is only lately
that he has been induced, on some occasions, when addressing EuropeanSy
to call himself * Patriarch of the Nestorians/ the name of Nestorian
never having been used by the Chaldaeans themselves.
174 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
among the horsemen. Gouriel, seizing the bridle of Ibrahim
Agha's horse, and unmindful of the blows which the Cawass
dealt about him, led him in triumph to his residence. It
was not before the wife of the Kiayah and some women,
who had assembled to cook our dinner, brought torches,
that the deputation discovered their error. I had alighted
in the meanwhile unseen, and had found my way to the roof
of the house, where all the cushions that could be found in
the village were piled up in front of a small table covered
with bottles of raki and an assortment of raisins and parched
peas, prepared in my honour. I hid myself among the
pillows, and it w^as some time before the Kiayah discovered
my retreat. He hiccupped out excuses till he was breath-
less, and endeavouring to kiss my feet, asked forgiveness for
the unfortunate blunder. * Wallah ! O Bey,' exclaimed
Ibrahim Agha, who had been searching for a stable, * the
whole village is drunk. It is always thus with these unbe-
lievers. They have now a good Pasha, who neither takes
jerums nor extra salian,* nor quarters Hytas upon them.
What dirt do they then eat? Instead of repairing their
houses, and sowing their fields, they spend every para in
raki, and sit eating and drinking, like hogs, night and day.'
I was forced to agree with Ibrahim Agha in his conclusions,
and would have remonstrated with my hosts; but there was
no one in a fit state to hear advice. I was not sorry to
see them at midnight scattered over the roof, buried in pro-
found sleep. I ordered the horses to be loaded, and reached
Mosul as die gates opened at daybreak.
The reader may desire to learn the fate of Tkhoma. A
few days after my return to Mosul, notwithstanding the
attempts of Tahyar Pasha to avert the calamity, Beder Khan
Bey marched through the Tiyari mountains, levying contribu-
tions on the tribes and plundering the villages, on his way
to the devoted district. The inhabitants, headed by their
Meleks, made some resistance, but were soon overpowered
by numbers. An indiscriminate massacre took place. The
women were brought before the chief, and murdered in cold
* At Mosul, * Jerums ' mean fines ; * salian,' the property tax, or taxes
levied on corporations under the old system.
VI I.] FA TE OF TKHOMA . 1 75
blood. Those who attempted to escape were cut off. Three
hundred women and children, who were flying into Baz,
were killed in the pass I have described. The principal
villages with their gardens were destroyed, and the churches
pulled down. Nearly half the population fell victims to the
fanatical fury of the Kurdish chief; amongst them were one
of the Meleks and Kasha Bodaca. With this good priest,
and Kasha Auraham, perished the most learned of the
Nestorian clergy ; and Kasha Kana is the last who has in-
herited any part of the knowledge and zeal which once so
eminently distinguished the Chaldaean priesthood.
The Porte was prevailed upon to punish this atrocious
massacre, and to crush a rebellious subject who had long
resisted its authority. An expedition was fitted out under
Osman Pasha; and after two engagements, in which the
Kurds were signally defeated by the Turkish troops headed
by Omar Pasha, Beder Khan Bey took refuge in a moun-
tain-castle. The position had been nearly carried, whien the
chief, finding defence hopeless, succeeded in obtaining from
the Turkish commander the same terms which had been
offered to him before the commencement of hostilities. He
was to be banished from Kurdistan ; but his family and
attendants were to accompany him, and he was guaranteed
the enjoyment of his property. Although the Turkish minis-
ters more than suspected that Osman Pasha had reasons of
his own for granting these terms, they honourably fulfilled
the conditions upon which the chief, although a rebel, had •
surrendered. He was taken to Constantinople, and subse-
quently sent in exile to the island of Candia— a punishment
totally inadequate to his numerous crimes.
After Beder Khafi Bey had retired from Tkhoma, a few of
the surviving inhabitants returned to their ruined villages ;
but Nur-Ullah Bey, suspecting that they knew of concealed
property, fell suddenly upon them. Many died under the
tortures to which they were exposed ; and the rest, as soon
as they were released, fled into Persia. This flourishing
district was thus destroyed; and it will be long ere its
cottages again rise from their ruins, and the fruits of patient
toil again clothe the sides of its valleys.
176 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
CHAPTER VIII.
Invitation to the feast of the Yezidis — Departure from Mosul — Baadri —
Htisscin Bey, the Yezidi chief— The birth of his son — History of tkt
Yezidis-— Rtde to the tomb of Sheikh AcU— Sheikh Nasr— -Description of
the tomb — Arrival of pilgrims — An incident — Sheikh Shems, or the sun
— Votive lamps — Celebration of rites — Yezidi music — The doctrines and
rdigious observances of the sect — The Evil principle — The probable origin
of their rites — Their orders of priesthood — Their language and books —
Rdurn to Mosul — Departure for the Sinjar — Abou Maria — Td Afer —
Mirkan — Escape of the Yezidis — The village of Sinjar — Wild asses.
A FEW days after my return to Mosul from the Tiyari mounh
tains, a priest of the Yezidis, or, as they are commonly
called, * Worshippers of the Devil,' was sent by Sheikh Nasr,
the religious chief of that remarkable sect, to invite Mr.
Rassam and myself to their great periodical feast The
Vice-consul was unable to accept the invitation; but I
seized with eagerness the opportunity of being present at
rites and ceremonies not before witnessed by an European.
The origin of my invitation proves that the Yezidis may
lay claim to a virtue which is, unfortunately, not of frequent
occurrence in the East, — I mean gratitude. When Keritli
Oglu, Mohammed Pasha, first came to Mosul, this sect was
amongst the objects of his cupidity and tyranny. By treachery
he seized, as he supposed, their high priest; but Sheikh Nasr
had time to escape the plot against him, and to substitute in
his place the second in authority, who was carried a prisoner
to the town. Such is the attachment shown by the Yezidis
to their chiefs, that the deceit was not revealed, and the sub-
stitute bore with resignation the tortures and imprisonment
inflicted upon him. Mr. Rassam having been applied to,
obtained his release from the Pasha, on the advance of a
considerable sum of money, which the inhabitants of the
VIII.] HUSSEIN BEY, 177
district of Sheikhan undertook to repay, in course of time,
out of the produce of their fields. They punctually fulfilled
the engagement thus entered into, and looked to the British
Vice-consul as their protector.
Owing to the disturbed state of the country, and the mis-
conduct of the late Pashas, some years had elapsed since
the Yezidis had assembled at Sheikh Adi. The short rule
of Ismail Pasha, and the conciliatory measures of the new
governor, had so far restored confidence amongst persons Of
all sects, that the Worshippers of the Devil had determined
to celebrate their great festival with more than ordinary
solemnity and rejoicings.
I quitted Mosul, accompanied by Hodja Toma (the drago-
man of the Vice-consulate), and the Cawal, or priest, sent
by Sheikh Nasr. We were joined on the road by several
Yezidis, who were, like ourselves, on their way to the place
of meeting. We passed the night in a small hamlet near
Khorsabad, and reached Baadri early next day. This village,
the residence of Hussein Bey, the political chief of the Yezidis,
is built at the foot of the line of hills crossed in my previous
journey to the Chaldaean mountains, and about five miles to
the north of Ain Sifni. We travelled over the same dreary
plain, leaving the mound of Jerrahiyah to our right
On approaching the village I was met by Hussein Bey
followed by the priests and principal inhabitants on foot.
The chief was about eighteen years of age, and one of the
handsomest young men I ever saw. His features were
regular and delicate, his eye lustrous, and the long curls,
which fell from under his variegated turban, of the deepest
black. An ample white cloak of fine texture was thrown
over his rich jacket and robes. I dismounted as he drew
near, and he endeavoured to kiss my hand ; but to this
ceremony I decidedly objected ; and we compromised
matters by embracing each other after the fashion of the
country. He then insisted upon leading my horse, which he
wished me to remount, and it was with difficulty that I at
length prevailed upon hitn to walk with me into the village.
He led me to his salamlik, or reception room, in which
carpets and cushions had been spread. Through the centre
N
178
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
ran a stream of fresh water, derived from a neighbouring
spring. The people of the place stood at the lower end of
the room, and listened in respectful silence to the conver-
sation between their chief and myself
Breakfast was brought to us from the harem of Hussein
Bey ; and the crowd having retired after we had eaten, I was
Hussein Bey, the Chief of the Yezidis, and his Brother.
left during the heat of the day to enjoy the cool temperature
of the salamlik.
I was awakened in the afternoon by that shrill cry of the
women, which generally announces some happy event The
youthful chief entered soon afterwards, followed by a long
retinue. It was evident, from the smile upon his features
VIII.] NAMING OF THE CHIEFS SON. 179
that he had joyful news to communicate. He seated himself
on my carpet, and thus addressed me : — * O Bey, your
presence has brought happiness on our house. At your
hands we receive nothing but good. We are all your ser-
vants; and, praise be to the Highest! in this house another
servant has been bom to you. The child is yours; he is
our first-bom, and he will grow up under your shadow. Let
him receive his name from you, and be hereafter under
your protection.' The assembly joined in the request, and
protested that this event, so interesting to all the tribe, was
solely to be attribifted to my fortunate visit. I was not quite
aware of the nature of the ceremony, if any, in which I might
be expected to join on naming the new-born chief. Not-
withstanding my respect and esteem for the Yezidis, I could
not but admit that there w^ere some doubts as to the propriety
of their tenets and form of worship ; and I was naturally
anxious to ascertain the amount of responsibility which I
might incur, in standing godfather to a devil-worshipping
baby. However, as I was assured that no other form was ne-
cessary than the mere selection of a name (the rite of bap-
tism being reserved for a future day, when the child could be
carried to the tomb of Sheikh Adi, and could bear immersion
in its sacred waters), I thus answered Hussein Bey : — ^* OBey,
I rejoice in this happy event, for which we must retum thanks
to God. May this son be but the first of many who will
preserve, as their forefathers have done, the fame and honour
of your house. As you ask of me a name for this child, I
could give you many, which, in my language and country,
are well-sounding and honourable ; but your tongue could
not utter them, and they would moreover be without mean-
ing. Were it usual I would call him after his father, whose
virtues he will no doubt imitate; but such is not the custom.
I have not forgotten the name of his grandfather, — a name
which is dear to the Yezidis, and still brings to their memory
the days of their prosperity and happiness. Let him there-
fore be known as Ali Bey; and may he live to see the
Yezidis as they were in the time of him after whom he is
called.' This oration, which was accompanied by a few
gold coins to be sewn to the cap of the infant, was received
N 2
i8o NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
with great applause ; and the name of Ali Bey was unani-
mously adopted, one of the chiefs relations hastening to
the harem, to communicate it to the ladies. Ho returned
with a carpet and some embroidery, as presents from the
mother, and with an invitation to visit her. I found her
with the young chief's second wife, for he had already
taken two. They assured me that the lady, who had just
brought joy to the house, was even more thankful than her
husband; and that her gratitude to me, as the author of
her happiness, was unbounded. They brought me honey
and strings of dried figs from the Sinjar, and entertained me
with domestic histories until I thought it time to return to
the salamlik.
The Yezidis were some years ago a very powerful tribe.
Their principal strongholds were in the district which I was
now visiting, and in the Gebel Sinjar, a solitary mountain
rising in the centre of the Mesopotamian desert to the west
of Mosul. The last independent chief of the Yezidis of
Sheikhan was Ali Bey, the father of Hussein Bey. He was
beloved by his tribe, and sufficiently brave and skilful in war
to defend them, for many years, against the attacks of the
Kurds and Mussulmans of the plain. The powerful Bey of
Rowandiz, who had united most of the Kurdish tribes of the
surrounding mountains under his banner, and long defied
both Turks and Persians, resolved to crush the hatefiil sect
of the Yezidis. Ali Bey's forces were greatly inferior in
numbers to those of his persecutor. He was defeated, and
fell into the hands of the Rowandiz chief, who put him to
death. The inhabitants of Sheikhan fled to Mosul It was
spring; the river had overflowed its banks, and the bridge
of boats had been removed. A few succeeded in crossing
the stream; but a crowd of men, women, and children
were left upon the opposite side, and congregated on the
great mound of Kouyunjik. The Bey of Rowandiz followed
them. An indiscriminate slaughter ensued; and the people
of Mosul beheld, fi-om their terraces, the murder of these
unfortunate fugitives, who cried to them in vain for help —
for both Christians and Mussulmans rejoiced in the ex-
termination of an odious and infidel sect, and no arm was
VIII.] PERSECUTIONS OF THE YEZIDIS, i8i
lifted in their defence. Hussein Bey, having been carried by
his mother to the mountains, escaped the general slaughter.
He was carefully brought up by the Yezidis, and from his
infancy had been regarded as their chief.
The inhabitants of the Sinjar were soon after subdued by
Mehemet Reshid Pasha, and a second time by Hafiz Pasha.
On both occasions there was a massacre, and the population
was reduced by three-fourths. The Yezidis took refuge in
caves, where they were either suffocated by fires lighted at
the mouth, or destroyed by discharges of cannon.
Mohammedans, in their dealings with men of other creeds,
make a distinction between such as are believers in the sacred
books, and such as have no recognised inspired works. To
the first category belong Christians of all denominations, as
receiving the two Testaments ; and the Jews, as followers
of the Old. With Christians and Jews, therefore, they may
treat, make peace, and live ; but with such as are included
in the second class, the good Mussulman can have no inter-
course. No treaty nor oath, when they are concerned, is
binding. They have the choice between conversion and
the sword, and it is unlawful even to take tribute from them.
The Yezidis, not being looked upon as * Masters of a Book,'
have been exposed for centuries to the persecution of the
Mohammedans. The harems of the soudi of Turkey have
been recruited from them. Yearly expeditions have been
made by the governors of provinces into their districts; and,
whilst the men and women were slaughtered without mercy,
the children of both sexes were carried off, and exposed for
sale in the principal towns. These annual hunts were one of
the sources of revenue of Beder Khan Bey ; and it was the
custom of the Pashas of Baghdad and Mosul to let loose the
irregular troops upon the ill-fated Yezidis, and to allow them
to carry off and sell the children as an easy method of satis-
fying their demands for arrears of pay. This system was
still practised to a certain extent within a very few months of
my visit ; and gave rise to atrocities scarcely equalled in the
better known slave trade.
It was not unnatural that the Yezidis should revenge them-
selves, whenever an opportunity might offer, upon their
i82 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
oppressors. They formed themselves into bands, and were
long tlie terror of the country. No Mussulman that fell
into their hands was spared. Caravans were plundered, and
merchants murdered without mercy. Christians, however,
were not molested; for the Yezidis looked upon them as
fellow-sufferers for religion's sake.
These acts of retaliation furnished an excuse for the invasion
of the Sinjar by Mehemet Reshid and Hafiz Pashas. Since
the great massacres which then took place, the Yezidis have
been completely subdued, and have patiently suflfered under
their misfortunes. Their devotion to their religion is no less
remarkable than that of the Jews ; and I know of no in-
stance of a person of full age renouncing his faith. They
invariably prefer death, and submit with resignation to the
tortures inflicted upon them.
Sheikh Nasr, the chief priest of the sect, had already left
Baadri, and was preparing for the religious ceremonies at the
tomb of Sheikh Adi. I visited his wife, and was gratified
by the unaffected hospitality of my reception, and struck by
the cleanliness of the house and of its scanty furniture. All
the dwellings which I entered appeared equally neat, and well
built Some stood in small gardens filled with flowers, and
near them were streams of running water, brought from the
abundant springs which issue from the hill above the village.
Next morning at dawn, Hussein Bey issued from his ha-
rem, anned and dressed in his gayest robes, ready to pro-
ceed to the tomb of the saint. The principal people of the
village were soon collected, and we all started together,
forming a long procession, preceded by musicians with
tambourines and pipes. The women were busily employed
in loading their donkeys with carpets and domestic utensils.
They were to follow leisurely. Hussein Bey and I rode to-
gether, and as long as the ground permitted, the horsemen
and footmen who accompanied us, engaged in mimic fight,
discharging their fire-arms into the air, and singing their
war songs. We soon reached the foot of a very precipitous
ascent, up which ran a steep and difficult pathway. The
horsemen now rode in single file, and we were frequently
compelled to dismount and drag our horses over the rocks.
VIII.] RIDE TO SHEIKH ADI. 183
We gained the summit of the pass in about an hour, and
looked down into the richly wooded valley of Sheikh Adi.
As soon as the white spire of the tomb appeared above the
trees, all our party discharged their guns. The echoes had
scarcely died away, when our signal was answered by similar
discharges from below. As we descended through the thick
wood of oaks, we passed many pilgrims on their way, like
ourselves, to the tomb; the women seated under the trees,
relieving themselves awhile from their infant burdens; the
men re-adjusting the loads which the rapid descent had dis-
placed. As each new body of travellers caught sight of the
object of their journey, they fired their guns, and shouted
the cry of the tribe to those below.
At some distance from the tomb we were met by Sheikh
Nasr and a crowd of priests and armed men. The Sheikh
was dressed in the purest white linen, as were the principal
members of the priesthood. His age could scarcely have
exceeded forty ; his manners were most mild and pleasing ;
he welcomed me with warmth ; and it was evident that my
visit had made a very favourable impression upon all
present. After I had embraced the Sheikh, and exchanged
salutations with his followers, we walked together towards
the sacred precincts. The outer court, as well as the avenue
which led to it, was filled with people ; but they made way
for us as we approached, and every one eagerly endeavoured
to kiss my hand.
The Yezidis always enter the inner court of the tomb
barefooted. I followed the custom, and leaving my shoes
at the entrance, seated myself, with Sheikh Nasr and Hus-
sein' Bey, upon carpets spread under an arbour, formed by
a wide-spreading. vine. The Sheikhs and Cawals, two of the
principal orders of the priesthood, alone entered with us,
and squatted round the yard against the walls. The trees,
which grew amongst and around the buildings, threw an
agreeable shade, over the whole assembly.
The tomb of Sheikh Adi is in a narrow valley, or rather
ravine, which has only one outlet, as the rocks rise preci-
pitously on all sides, except where a small stream forces its
way into a larger valley beyond. It stands in a courtyard,
i84 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap. VIII.
and is surrounded by a few buildings, inhabited by the guar-
dians and servants of the sanctuary. The interior is divided
into a large hall partitioned in the centre by a row of
columns- and arches. At the upper end is a reservoir
filled by an abundant spring issuing from the rock; and two
smaller apartments, in which are the tombs of the saint,
and of some inferior personage. The water of the reservoir
is regarded with pecuHar veneration, and is believed by the
Yezidis to be derived from the holy well of 2^mzem at Mecca.
In it children are baptized, and it is used for other sacred
purposes. The tomb is covered by a large square case,
made of clay and plastered, over which is thrown an em-
broidered green cloth. It is in the inner room, which is
dimly lighted by a sniall lamp. On it is written the chapter
of the Koran, called the Ayat el Courci. It is thus made to
resemble, as nearly as possible, the tomb of a Mussulman
saint, to preserve it from profanation by the Kurds.
In the principal hall a few lamps are generally burning,
and at sunset hghts are placed in niches scattered over the
walls.
Three white spires, rising above the building, form a
pleasing contrast with the rich foliage by which they are
surrounded. They are topped by gilt ornaments, and their
sides are ribbed and fashioned into many angles, causing an
agreeable variety of light and shade. On the wall near the
doorway are rudely carved a lion, a snake, a hatchet, a man,
and a comb. The snake, painted black, is particularly con-
spicuous. Although these figures are probably emblematical,
I could obtain no other explanation from Sheikh Nasr, than
that they had been cut by the Christian mason who repaired
the tomb some years ago, as ornaments suggested by his
mere fancy. I observed the hatchet, comb, and the short
hooked stick, such as is generally carried in the country,
carved on many stones in the building, but was assured that
they were only marks cut at the request of those who had
furnished money towards the restoration of the building, or
had assisted in the work.
In the centre of the inner court, and under the vine, is a
square plaster case, in which is a small recess filled with balls
i86 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
of clay taken from the tomb of the saint. These are sold
or distributed to pilgrims, and regarded as sacred relics —
useful against diseases and evil spirits and to be buried with
the dead. Certain members of the priesthood and their
families alone inhabit the surrounding buildings. They are
chosen to watch over the sacred precincts, and are supported
by the tribe.
The outer court is enclosed by low buildings, with open
recesses or rooms similar to those in an eastern bazaar.
They are intended for the accommodation of pilgrims, and for
the stalls of pedlars, during the celebration of the festival.
Several gigantic trees throw their shade over the open space,
and streams of fresh water are led round the buildings.
Around the tomb, and beneath the trees which grow on
the sides of the mountain, are numerous rudely built houses,
each belonging to a Yezidi district or tribe. The pilgrims,
according to the place from which they come, reside in them
during the time of the feast ; so that different parts of the
valley are known by the name of the country, or tribe, of
those who resort to them.
I sat till nearly mid-day with the assembly, at the door of
the tomb. Sheikh Nasr then rose, and I followed him into
the outer court, which was filled by a busy crowd of pilgrims.
In the recesses and on the ground were spread the stores of
the pedlars, who, on such occasions, repair to the valley.
Many-coloured handkerchiefs, and cotton stuffs from Europe
hung from the branches of the trees ; dried figs from the
Sinjar, raisins from Amadiyah, dates from Busrah, and wal-
nuts from the mountains, were displayed in heaps upon the
pavement. Around these tempting treasures were gathered
groups of boys and young girls. Men and women were
engaged on all sides in animated conversation, and the hum
of human voices was heard through the valley. All respect-
fully saluted the Sheikh, and made way for us as we ap-
proached. We issued from tlie precincts of the principal
building, and seated ourselves on the edge of a fountain
built by the road-side, and at the end of the avenue of trees
leading to the tomb. The slabs surrounding the basin are
to some extent looked upon as sacred ; and at this time only
VIII.] YEZIDI FESTIVAL, 187
Hussein Bey, Sheikh Nasr, and myself were permitted to
place ourselves upon them. Even on other occasions the
Yezidis are unVilHng to* see them polluted by Mussulmans,
who usually choose this spot, well adapted for repose, to
spread their carpets. The water of the fountain is carefully
preserved from impurities, and is drunk by those who con-
gregate in the valley. Women were now hastening to and
fro with their pitchers, and making merry as they waited
their turn to dip them into the reservoir. The principal
Sheikhs and Cawals sat in a circle round the spring, and
listened to the music of pipes and tambourines.
I never beheld a more picturesque or animated scene.
Long lines of pilgrims toiled up the avenue. There was the
swarthy inhabitant of the Sin jar, with his long black locks,
his piercing eye and regular features — his white robes float-
ing in the wind, and his unwieldy matchlock thrown over his
shoulder. Then followed the more wealthy families of the
Kochers, — ^the wandering tribes who live in tents in the
plains, and among the hills of ancient Adiabene ; the
men in gay jackets and variegated turbans, with fantastic
arms in their girdles; the women richly clad in silk antaris
or long gowns; their hair, braided in many tresses, falling
down their backs, and adorned with wild flowers; their fore-
heads almost concealed by gold and silver coins; and huge
strings of glass beads, coins, and engraved stones hanging
round their necks. Next would appear a poverty-stricken
family from a village of the Mosul district; the women clad
in white, pale and careworn, bending under the weight of
their children; the men urging on their heavily-laden donkeys.
Similar groups descended from the hills. Repeated dis-
charges of fire-arms, and a well-known signal, announced to
those below the arrival of every new party.
All turned to the fountain before proceeding to their
allotted stations, and laying their arms on the ground, kissed
the hands of Hussein Bey, Sheikh Nasr, and myself. After
saluting the assembled priests they continued their way up
the sides of the mountains, and chose a wide-spreading oak,
or the roof of a building, for a resting-place during their so-
journ in the valley. They then spread their carpets, and,
1 88 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
lighting fires with dry branches and t>vigs, busied themselves
in preparing their food. Such groups were scattered in every
direction. There was scarcely a tree without its colony.
All, before entering the sacred valley, washed themselves
ard their clothes in the stream issuing from it They came
thu? purified to the feast I never before saw so much as-
sembled cleanliness in the East Their garments, generally
white, were spotless.
During the afternoon, dances were performed before the
Bey and myself. They resembled the Arab Debk^ and the
Kurdish Tchopee. As many young men as could crowd
into the small open space in front of the fountain joined in
them. Others sang in chorus with the music. Every place,
from which a sight could be obtained of the dancers, was oc-
cupied by curious spectators. Even the branches above our
heads were bending under the clusters of boys who had dis-
covered that, firom them, they could get a full view of what
was going on below. The manoeuvres of one of these
urchins gave rise to a somewhat amusing incident, which
illustrates the singular superstitions of the Yezidis, who
never mention the name of the Devil, and look with the
greatest awe upon any allusion to the Evil One, and have
consequently received the name given to them in the East,
of the Devil-worshippers. He had forced himself to the very
end of a weak bough, which was immediately above me, and
threatened every moment to break under the weight As I
looked up I saw the impending danger, and made an effort,
by an appeal to the chief, to avert it * If that young
Sheit ,' I exclaimed, about to use an epithet generally
given in the East to such adventurous youths.* I checked
myself immediately ; but it was already too late ; half the
dreaded word had escaped. The effect was instantaneous :
a look of horror seized those who were near enough to over-
hear me; it was quickly communicated to those beyond. The
pleasant smile, which usually played upon the fine features of
the young Bey, gave way to a serious and angry expression.
* The term Sheitan (equivalent to Satan) is usually applied in the
East to a clever, cunning, or daring fellow.
VIII.] YEZIDI PILGRIMS. 189
I lamented thai T had thus unwillingly wounded the feelings
of my hosts, and was at a loss to know how I could make
atonement foi my indiscretion — doubting whetlier an apo-
logy to the Evil principle or to the chief was expected. I
endeavoured, however, to make them understand, witliout
venturing upon any observations which might have brought
me into greater difficulties, that I regretted what had passed;
but it was some time ere the group resumed their composure,
and indulged in their previous merriment.
My carpets had been spread on the roof of a building of
some size, belonging to the people of Semil. About me,
but at a convenient distance, were scattered groups of pil-
grims from that district. Men, women, and children were
congregated round their cauldrons, preparing their evening
meal; or were stretched upon their coarse carpets, resting
after the long march of the day. Near me was the chief,
whose mud castle crowns the mound of the village of Semil.
He was a stem-looking man, gaily dressed, and wpU armed.
He received me with every demonstration of civility, and I
sat for some time with him and his wives; one of whom was
young and pretty, and had been recently selected from the
Kochers, or wanderers. Her hair was profusely adorned
with flowers and gold coins. They had sacrificed a sheep,
and all (including the chief, whose arms, bare to the shoul-
der, were reeking with blood) gathered round the carcase;
and, tearing the limbs, distributed morsels to the poor who
had been collected to receive them.
At some distance from the people of Semil were the wife
and family of Sheikh Nasr, who had also slain a sheep. The
Sheikh himself resided in the sacred building, and was occu-
pied during the day in receiving the pilgrims, and performing
various duties imposed upon him on the occasion. I visited
his harem; his wife spread fruit and honey before me, and
entertained me with a long account of her domestic employ-
ments.
Below the cluster of buildings assigned to the people of
Semil is a small white spire, springing from a low edifice,
neatly constructed, and, like all the sacred places of the Ye-
zidis, kept as pure as repeated coats of whitewash can make
I90 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
it. It is called the sanctuary of Sheikh Shems, or of the
Sun; and is so placed, that the first morning mys should as
frequently as possible fall upon it Near the door an invo-
cation to Sheikh Shems is carved on a slab; and one or two
votive tablets, raised by the father of Hussein Bey, and other
chiefs of the Yezidis, are built into the walls. The interior,
which is a very holy place, is lighted by a few small lamps.
At sunset, as I sat in the alcove in front of the entrance, a
herdsman led into a pen, attached to the building,, a drove
of white oxen. I asked a Cawal, who was near me, to whom
the beasts belonged. *They are dedicated,* he said, *to
Sheikh Shems, and are never slain except on great festivals,
when their flesh is distributed amongst the poor.* This un-
expected answer gave rise to an agreeable musing; and I
sat, almost unconscious of the scene around me, until dark-
ness stole over the valley.*
As the twilight faded, the Fakirs, or lower order of priests,
dressed in brown garments of coarse cloth, closely fitting to
their bodies, and wearing black turbans on their heads, issued
from the tomb, each bearing a light in one hand, and a pot
of oil, with a bundle of cotton wicks, in the other. They filled,
trimmed, and lighted lamps placed in niches in the walls of the
courtyard, and scattered over the buildings on the sides of the
valley, and even on isolated rocks and in the hollow trunks
of trees. Innumerable stars seemed to glitter on the black
sides of the mountain, and in the dark recesses of the forest
As the priests made their way through the crowd, to perform
their task, men and women passed their right hands through
the flame, and then devoutly carried them to their lips, after
rubbing the right eyebrow with the part which had been
purified by the sacred element. Some, who bore children in
their arms, anointed them in like manner, whilst others held
out their hands to be touched by those who, less fortunate
than themselves, could not reach the flame.
* The dedication of the bull to the sun, so generally recognised in
the religious systems of the ancients, probably originated in Assyria,
and the Yezidis may have unconsciously preserved a myth of their
ancestors. Cawal Yusuf confirmed the statement that this ziareh, or
sanctuary, is dedicated to the Sun, who, he informed me, is called by the
Yezidis, * Wakeel el Ardth, ' the lieutenant or governor of the world.
VIII.] YEZIDI CEREMONIES, 191
The lamps are votive offerings from pilgrims, or from those
who have appealed to Sheikh Adi in times of danger or
disease, and who gave a yearly sum to the guardians of the
tomb for oil, and for the support of the priests. They are
lighted every evening as long as the supplies last In the
daytime the smoked walls mark where they are placed, and
I have observed the Yezidis devoutly kissing the blackened
stones.
About an hour after sunset the Fakirs, who are the
servants of the tomb, appeared with platters of boiled rice,
roast meat, and fruit. They had been sent to me from the
kitchen of the holy edifice. The wife of Sheikh Nasr also
contributed some dishes towards the repast.
As night advanced, those who had assembled — they must
now have amounted to nearly five thousand persons — lighted
torches, which they carried with them as they wandered
through the forest. The effect was magical ; the varied
groups could be faintly distinguished through the darkness ;
men hurrying to and fro ; women, with their children, seated
on the house-tops ; and crowds gathering round the pedkrs
who exposed their wares for sale in the court-yard. Thousands
of lights were reflected in the fountains and streams, glim-
mered amongst the foliage of the trees, and danced in the
distance. As I was gazing on this extraordinary scene, the
hum of human voices was suddenly hushed, and a strain,
solemn and melancholy, arose from the valley. It resembled
some majestic chant which years before I had listened to in
the cathedral of a distant land. Music so pathetic and so
sweet I had never before heard in the East. The voices of
men and women were blended in harmony with the soft
notes of many flutes. At measured intervals the song was
broken by the loud crash of cymbals and tambourines ; and
those who were without the precincts of the tomb then joined
in the melody.
I hastened to the sanctuary, and found Sheikh Nasr, sur-
rounded by the priests, seated in the inner court. The place
was illuminated by torches and lamps, which threw a soft
light over the white walls of the tomb and green foliage of
the arbour. The Sheikhs, in their white turbans and robes,
192
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS.
[Chap.
all venerable men with long grey beards, were ranged on one
side; on the opposite, seated on the stones, were about
thirty Cawals in their dresses of black and white — each per-
forming on a tambourine or a flute. Around stood the Fakirs
in their dark garments, and the women of the orders of the
priesthood arrayed in pure white. No others were admitted
within the walls of the court.
Yezidi Cawals.
The same slow and solemn strain, occasionally varied in
the melody, lasted for nearly an hour ; a part of it was called
' Makam Azerat Esau,' or the * Song of the Lord Jesus.' It
was sung by the Sheikhs, the Cawals, and the women ; and
occasionally by those without. I could not catch the words,
nor could I prevail upon any of those present to repeat them
to me. They were in Arabic ; and as few of the Yezidis can
speak or pronounce that language, they were not intelli-
gible, even to the experienced ear of Hodja Toma, who ac-
companied me. At first the tambourines only interrupted at
intervals the song of the priests. As the time quickened
they broke in more frequently. The chant gradually gave way
VIII.] THE YEZIDI FESTIVAL, 193
to a lively melody, which, increasing in measure, was finally
lost in a confusion of sounds. The tambourines were beaten
with extraordinary energy ; the flutes poured forth a rapid
flood of notes ; the voices were raised to their highest pitch;
the men outside joined in the cry ; whilst the women made
the rocks resound with the shrill tahlehL The musicians,
giving way to the excitement, threw their instruments into
the air, and strained their limbs into every contortion, until
they fell exhausted to the ground. I never heard a more
frightful yell than that which rose in the valley. It was
midnight The time and place were well suited to the oc-
casion; and I gazed with wonder upon the extraordinary
scene around me. I did not marvel that such wild ceremonies
had given rise to those stories of unhallowed rites and ob-
scene mysteries, which have rendered the name of Yezidi
an abomination in the East Notwithstanding the uncon-
trollable excitement which appeared to prevail amongst all
present, there were no indecent gestures, nor unseemly ob-
servances. When the musicians and singers were exhausted,
the noise suddenly died away; the various groups resumed
their previous cheerfulness, and again wandered through the
valley, or seated themselves, under the trees.
Some ceremony took place before I joined the assembly
at the tomb, at which no stranger can be present, nor could
I learn its nature from the Cawals. Sheikh Nasr gave me
to understand that their holy symbol, which they guard with
so much veneration and jealousy, the Melek Taous, or King
Peacock, as it is called, was then exhibited to the priests; and
he declared that^ as far as he was concerned, he had no
objection to my witnessing the whole of their rites ; but that
many of the Sheikhs were averse to it, and he did not wish
to create any ill-feeling in the tribe. Indeed, I found him
frank and communicative on all subjects.
After the ceremonies in the inner yard had ceased, I re-
turned with the Sheikh and Hussein Bey to the fountain in
the avenue. Around it were grouped men and women with
torches, which flung their red gleams upon the water. Seve-
' ral of the Cawals accompanied us to the spot, and sang and
played on their flutes and tambourines until nearly dawn.
o
194
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS.
[Chap.
Daylight had begun to appear before the pilgrims sought
repose. Silence reigned through the valley until mid-day,
when new parties of travellers reached the tomb and again
awakened the echoes by their cries and the discharge of fire-
arms. Towards the evening about seven thousand persons
must have assembled. The festival was more numemusly
attended than it had been for many years, and Sheikh Nasr
rejoiced in the prospect of times of prosperity for his people.
At night the ceremonies of the previous evening were
Vezidi Women at Sheikh Adi.
repeated. New melodies were introduced ; but the singing
ended in the same rapid measure and violent excitement
that I have described. During the three days I remained
at Sheikh Adi, I wandered over the valley and surrounding
mountains ; visiting the various groups of pilgrims, talking
with them of their dwelling-places, and listening to their
tales of oppression and bloodshed. From all I received the
VIII.] DOCTRINES OF THE YEZIDIS, 195
same simple courtesy and kindness; nor had I any cause to
change the good opinion I had already formed of the Yezidis.
There were no Mohammedans present, nor any Christians,
except those who were with me, and a poor woman who had
lived long with the sect, and was a privileged guest at their
festivals. Unrestrained by the presence of strangers, the
women forgot their usual timidity, and roved unveiled over
the mountains. As I sat beneath the trees, laughing girls
gathered round me, examined my dress, or asked me
questions. Some, more bold than the rest, would bring me
the strings of beads and engraved stones hanging round
their necks, and permit me to examine the Assyrian relics
thus collected together, whilst others, more fearful, though not
ignorant of the impression which their charms would create,
stood at a distance, and weaved wild flowers into their hair.
The men assembled in groups round the fountains and
about the tomb. They talked and made- merry; but no
dissension or angry words disturbed the general good
humour. The sound of music and of song rose from all
sides above the hum of voices. The priests and sheikhs
walked amongst the people, or sat with the families assembled
under nearly every tree.
The Yezidis recognise one Supreme Being; but, as far
as I could learn, they do not offer up any direct prayer or
sacrifice to him. Sheikh Nasr endeavoured to evade my
questions on the subject ; and appeared to shun, with super-
stitious awe, every topic connected with the existence and
attributes of the Deity. The common Mohammedan forms
of expression^ — half oath, half ejaculation — ai'e nevertheless
frequently in the mouths of the people, but probably from'
mere habit. The name of the Devil is, however, never
mentioned ; and any allusion to it by others so vexes and
irritates them, that it is said they have put to death persons
who have wantonly outraged theu: feelings by its use. So
far is their dread of off'ending the Evil Spirit carried, that
they carefully avoid every expression which may resemble
in sound the name of Satan, or the Arabic word for
* accursed.* When they speak of the Devil, they do so with
reverence, as Melek el Kout, the mighty angel.
o 2
196 .\L\£l'£// AXD ITS REMALXS. [Chap.
Sheikh Xasr distinctly admitted that they possessed a
bronze or copper figure of a bird, which, however, he was
careful in explaining i^-as only looked upon as a symboJ,
or banner, of the house of Hussein Bey and not as an idoL
There are four of these figures. One ali*-ays remains with
the great Sheikh, and is carried with him wherever he may
journey. \\Tien deputies are sent to any distance to collect
money for the support of the tomb and the priests, they are
furnished with one of these images, which is sho^n to those
amongst whom they go as an authority for their mission.
This s\Tnbol is called the Melek Taous (King Peacock),
and is held in great reverence.
On a subsequent occasion, when travelling in the district
of Redwan ^*ith Cawal Yusu^ one of
the principal priests of the Yezidis. I
had an oj^portunit}' of seeing this
m\-sterious figure. The Cawals who
are sent yearly by Hussein Bey and
Sheikh Nasr to instruct the Yezidis
in their faith, and to collect the re-
venues of their chief, and of the tomb
of Sheikh Adi, were in that district
On these \-isits they carry with them
the Melek Taous. I asked Cawal
Yusuf to permit me to see it He
at once acceded to my request,
and the other Ca\^*als and the €ddeis
offering no objection, I was con-
ducted with much m)*stery into an
inner room of the house of the chief
of the \'illage in which the braaoi
peacock was deposited. It was some
time before my eyes had been suflS-
The Mcick Taoas, or ciently accustomed to the dim light
Copper Bird of the Vcadis. jq distinguish an object from which
a large red coverlet had been raised on my entry. The
Ca^*als drew near i^-ith every sign of respect, bowing and
kissing the comer of the cloth on which it \i-as placed. A
stand of bright copper or brass, in shape like the candle-
VIII.] DOCTRINES OF THE YEZIDIS. 197
sticks in common use in Mosul and Baghdad, was sur-
mounted by the rude image of a bird in the same metal,
more like an Indian or Mexican idol than a peacock. Its
peculiar workmanship indicated some antiquity, but I could
see no traces of inscription upon it 'Before it stood a copper
bowl to receive contributions, and a bag to contain the
image and stand, which takes to pieces, when carried from
place to place. The Yezidis declare that, notwithstanding
'the frequent wars and massacres to which they have been
exposed, and the plunder and murder of their priests during
their journeys, no MelekTaous has ever fallen into the hands
of the Mohammedans.
The Yezidis believe Satan to be the chief of the Angelic
host, now suffering punishment for his rebellion against
the divine will ; but still all-powerful, and to be restored
hereafter to his high estate in the celestial hierarchy. He
must be conciliated and reverenced, they say; for as he now
has the means of doing evil to mankind, so will he here-
after have the power of rewarding them. Next to Satan,
but inferior to him in might and wisdom, are seven arch-
angels,* who exercise a great; influence over the world ; they
are Gabrail, Michail, Raphail, Azrail, Dedrail, Azrapheel,
and Shemkeel. Christ, according to the Yezidis, was also
a great angel, who had taken the form of man. He did not
die on the cross* but ascended to heaven.
They hold the Old Testament in great reverence, and
believe in the cosmogony of Genesis, the Deluge, and other
events recorded in the Bible. They do not reject the New
Testament, nor the Koran ; but consider them less entitled
to their veneration. Still they always select passages from
the latter for their tombs and holy places ; but this may
be done to preserve them from violation and defacement
* It will be remembered that, in the book of Tobit (xii. 15), Raphael
is made to say : * I am Raphael, one of the seven holy angels, which
present the prayers of the saints, and which go in and out before the •
glory of the Holy One. * * The seven spirits before the throne of God,
are mentioned in Revelations, i. 4 ; iv. 5. This number seven, in the
hierarchy of the Celestial Host, and in many sacred things, appears
to have been connected with Chaldsean traditions and celestial observa-
tions.
198 • NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
by the Mohammedans. Mohammed they look upon as a
prophet ; as they do Abraham and the patriarchs.
They believe that Christ will cx)me to govern the world,
but that, after him, Sheikh (the Imaum) Mehdi will appear,
to whom will be given special jurisdiction over those speak-
ing the Kurdish language, including the Yezidis. This ap-
pears to be a modem interpolation in their creed; perhaps
invented to conciliate the Mohammedans. All who go to
heaven must first pass an expiatory period in hell, but no one
will be punished eternally. Mohammedans they exclude firom
all future life, but not Christians. This may have been said
to me to avoid giving offence.
Sheikh Adi is their great saint ; but I could not learn- any
particulars relating to him; indeed the epoch of his existence
seemed doubtful ; and on one occasion Sheikh Nasr asserted
that he lived before Mohammed.
As to the origin of their name, it is well known that the
Mussulmans trace it to the celebrated Ommiade Caliph,
Yezid, who figures as the persecutor of the family of Ali in
their own religious history; but there is reason to believe
that it must be sought for elsewhere, as it was used long
before the introduction of Mohammedanism, and is probably
not without connection with the early Persian appeUation of
the Supreme Being, * Yezd.' * It is difficult to trace their
ceremonies to any particular source. They baptize in water,
like the Christians. When a child is bom near enough to the
tomb of Sheikh Adi to be taken there without great incon-
venience or danger, it should be baptized as early as possible
after birth. The Cawals, in their periodical visitations, carry
a bottle or skin filled with the holy water firom the tomb, to,
baptize those children who cannot be brought to the shrine.
They circumcise at the same age, and in the same manner
as the Mohammedans, but the ceremony is optional; and
* Cawal Yusuf once mentioned to me that, among the Yezidis, the
ancient name for God was * A^; ' and from it he derived their name.
Theophanes (Chronographia, p. 492, ed. Bon), mentions a settlenaent
of lesdem, on the lesser Zab, near which the Emperor Heraclius
encamped. They may have been Yezidis, and of the ancestors of the
present sect. Sir Henry Rawlinson has pointed out the name as oc-
curring in ancient Adiabene.
VIII.] DOCTRINES OF THE YEZIDIS, 199
they reverence the sun, and have many customs in common
with the Sabaeans. All these ceremonies and observances
may have had a common origin, or may have been grafted
at different times on their original creed. They may have
adopted circumcision to avoid detection by their Mussulman
oppressors, and may have selected passages from the Koran,
to carve upon their tombs and sacred places, because, as
suggested to me by* Sheikh Nasr, they corresponded with
their opinions, and were best suited to a country in which
Arabic was the spoken language. They have more in com-
mon with the Sabaeans than with any other sect. I have
already alluded to their reverence for the sun, and have de-
scribed the temple and the oxen dedicated to that luminary.*
They are accustomed to kiss the object on which its first
beams fall; and I have frequently, when travelling in their
company at sunrise, observed them perform this ceremony.
For fire, as symbolical, they have nearly the same reve-
rence: they never spit into it, but frequently pass their hands
through the flame, kiss them, and rub them over the right
eyebrow, or sometimes over the whole face.f The colour
blue, to them as to the Sabaeans, is an abomination; and
never to be worn in dress, or to be used in their houses.
Their Kubleh, or the place to which they look whilst per-
forming their holy ceremonies, is that part of the heavens in
which the sun rises, or, according to others, the polar star. J
* I must observe that although the inscriptions, in the sanctuary
described, were all addressed to Sheikh Shems, and that both Sheikh
Nasr and the Cawals assured me that it was dedicated to the sun, it is
just possible that, under the title of Sheikh Shems, some other object
than the sun,, or some particular person, is designated, and that my infor-
mants were unwilling to enter into any explanation.
+ I was afterwards assured by Cawal Yusuf, that the Yezidis have
no particular reverence for fire ; the people passing their hands through
the flames of the lamps at Sheikh Adi merely because they belong to
the tomb. Some travellers have asserted that the Yezidis will not blow
out a candle ; but such is not the case ; nor is it an insult to spit in their
presence, as it has been stated.
t Cawal Yusuf, however, declared that their Kubleh was the polar
star. All Eastern sects appear to have had some Kubleh, or holy
point, to which the face was to be turned during prayer. The Jews
looked towards Jerusalem. The Saboeans, according to some, to the
north star, or, according to* others, towards that part of the heavens
in which the sun rises, another point of resemblance between them
200 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
In their fondness for white Hnen, in their cleanliness of
habits, and in their frequent ablutions, they also resemble
the Sabaeans.
The lettuce, the bamiyah,* and some other vegetables,
are never eaten by them. Pork is unlawful ; but not wine,
which is drunk by all. Although they assert that meat
should not be eaten, unless the animal has been slain accord-
ing to the Mosaic and Mohammedan law, they do not object
to partake of the food of Christians.
I could not learn that there were any religious observances
on marriage. I was informed by the Cawals that the man
and woman merely present themselves to a Sheikh, who as-
certains that there is mutual consent. A ring is then given
to the bride, or sometimes money instead. A day is fixed
for rejoicings, on which they drink sherbet and dance, but
have no religious ceremonies. The number of wives is
limited to one, but the chief has power to transgress the law,
and concubines are not forbidden. The wife may be turned
away for grave misconduct, and the husband, with the con-
sent of the Sheikhs, may marry again; but the discarded wife
cannot remarry. Even such divorces ought only to be given
in cases of adultery; for formerly, when the Yezidis adminis-
tered their own temporal laws, the wife was punished with
death, and the husband was thus released.
I witnessed, on one occasion, the ceremonies performed at
a Yezidi marriage. They took place in the village of Baashiek-
hah, and the bride was a niece of Cawal Yusuf. On the first
day the parties entered into the usual contract in the presence
of a Sheikh and before witnesses, amidst rejoicings and
dances. On the second day the bride was Jed to the house
of the bridegroom, surrounded by the inhabitants dressed
in their gayest garments, and by the Cawals playing on their
pipes and tambourines. She was covered from head to foot
with a thick veil, which completely concealed her features,
and was kept behind a curtain in the corner of a darkened
and the Yezidis. The early Christians chose the East. Mohammed,
who recognised the general custom, and found it necessary to adhere
to it, appointed the Kaaba of Mecca to be the Kubleh of his disciples.
♦ Hibiscus esculentus.
VIII.] MARRIAGE CEREMONIES, 201
room. Here she remained until the guests had feasted for
three days, after which the bridegroom was allowed to ap-
proach her. After the expiration of these three days the
bridegroom was sought early in the morning, and led in
triumph by his friends from house to house, receiving at each
a trifling present. He was then placed within a curcle of
dancers and the guests and bystanders wetting small coins,
stuck them on his forehead. The money was collected as it
fell in an open kerchief held by his companions under his
chin. After this ceremony a party of young men, who had
attached themselves to the bridegroom, rushed into the
crowd, and carrying off the most wealthy of the guests locked
them up in a dark room until they consented to pay a ran-
som for their release. They all seemed to enjoy the joke,
and, after a little resistance, paid the money, which was added
to the dowry of the newly married couple. There was feast-
ing, and raki-drinking, and music day and night, as is usual
at an Eastern wedding.
After death the body of a Yezidi should be washed in run-
ning water, and then buried with the face turned towards the
polar star. A Cawal should, .if possible, be present at the
ceremony, to offer up the necessary prayers; but if one can-
not be found, the next Cawal who visits the place should
pray over the grave. I have frequerttly seen funerals when
staying in the Yezidi villages. The widow, dressed in white,
and throwing dust on her head, which is also smeared with
clay, goes forth with her female friends and companions to
meet the mourners. She approaches them dancing, and
brandishing her husband's sword with one hand, and long
locks cut from her own hair in the other.
The Yezidi year begins with that of the Eastern Christians,
whom they follow also in the order and names of their
months. There is a fast of forty days in the spring, but it is
observed by few: one person in a family may fast for the rest
They should abstain during that period from animal food.
Sheikh Nasr fasts rigidly for one month in the year, eating
only once in twenty-four hours, and immediately after sunset
Some fast three days at the commencement of the year; but
this is not considered necessary. They do not observe the
202 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
Mohammedan Ramazan. Wednesday is their holiday, and
although some always fast on that day, yet they do not ab-
stain from work on it, as Christians do on the Sabbath.
Sheikh Nasr informed me that they had a date of their own,
and that, according to their account, we were then in the
year 1550. This suggested some connection with Manes;
but neither by direct nor indirect questions could I ascertain
that they were acquainted with his name, or recognised him
in anywise as the author of their peculiar doctrines with re-
gard to the Evil principle.
Their names, both male and female, are generally those
used both by Mohammedans and Christians, or such as are
common amongst the Kurds, and not strictly of Mussulman
origin. The name of Goorgis (George) is, however, objec-
tionable; and is never, I believe, given to a Yezidi.
They have four orders of priesthood, the Pirs, the Sheikhs,
the Cawals, and the Fakirs ; and, what is very remarkable,
and, I believe, unexampled in the East, these offices are he-
reditary, and descend to women, who, when enjoying them,
are treated with the same respect and consideration as
the men.
The Firs* or saints, are most reverenced after the great
Sheikh, or religious head of the sect They are believed to
have the power, not only of interceding for the people, but
of curing disease and insanity. They are expected to lead a
life of great sanctity and honesty; and are looked up to with
much reverence. They are not confined, I believe, to any
particular fashion of dress. The only Pir I knew was one
Sino, who was recognised as the deputy of Sheikh Nasr, and
had suffered imprisonment in his stead.
The Sheikhs are next in rank. They are acquainted with •
the hymns, and are expected to know something of Arabic,
the language in which the hymns are written. Their dress
should be entirely white, except the skull-cap beneath the
turban, which is black. As servants of Sheikh Adi, they are
the guardians of his tpmb, keep up the holy fires, and bring
provisions and fuel to those who dwell within its precincts,
* This is a Kurdish (Persian) title, — it means, literally, an old man.
VIII.] YEZIDI PRIESTHOOD, 203
and to pilgrims of distinction. They always wear round
their bodies a band of red and black, or red and orange
plaid, as the mark of their office ; with it they bind together
the wood, and other supplies which they bring to the sacred
edifice. The women belonging to this order carry the same
badge, and are employed in the same services. There are
always several Sheikhs residing in the valley of Sheikh Adi.
They watch over the tomb, and receive pilgrims; taking
charge in rotation of the offerings that may be brought, or
selling the clay balls and other relics.
The Cawals, or Preachers, appear to be the most active
members of the priesthood. They are all of one family,
and are sent by Hussein Bey and Sheikh Nasr on periodical
missions, going from village to village with the symbol of
the bird as teachers of the doctrines of the sect, and to
levy contributions, half of 'which goes to the support of the
tomb of Sheikh Adi, the other half being equally divided
between Hussein Bey and the Cawals. They alone are the
performers on the flute and tambourine, both instruments
being looked upon, to a certain extent, as sacred. I ob-
served that before, and after, using the tambourine they
frequently kissed it, and then held it to those near them, to
be similarly saluted. They are taught singing at a very early
age, are skilful musicians, and occasionally dance at festivals.
They usually know a little Arabic, but barely more than
necessary to get through theu: chants and hymns. Their
garments are generally white, although coloured stuffs are
not forbidden ; but their turbans, unlike those of the Sheikhs,
are black, as are also their skull-caps..
The Fakirs are the lowest in the priesthood. They wear
coarse dresses of black, or dark brown cloth, or canvass,
descending to the knee and fitting tightly to the person ; and
a black turban, across which is generally tied a red kerchief.
They perform all menial offices connected with the tomb,
trim and light the votive lamps, and keep clean the sacred
buildings.
Whilst each tribe and district of the Yezidis has its own
head, their religious and political hereditary chief, wherever
they may reside, is Hussein Bey, who is called the Khalifa
204 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
(the Caliph). As he is young and inexperienced he deputes
his religious duties, as high-priest, to Sheikh Nasr. He should
be the ' Peesh-Namaz,* or leader of the prayers, during
sacred ceremonies;* but as a peculiar dress is worn on
this occasion, and the Bey is obliged to be in continual
intercourse with the Turkish authorities, these robes might
fall into their hands, they are, therefore, entrusted to
Sheikh Jindi, who officiates for the young chief f Sheikh
Nasr, although now holding the office of high-priest, which
was previously held by his father, is, I was assured, only the
chief of the Sheikhs of the district of Sheikhan. Still he is
treated with the greatest reverence and respect by all the
sect, and a gentle and amiable character fully entities him to
the consideration he receives from them. .
Neither Hussein Bey nor the Priests ever shave their
beards. They ought not to marry out of their own order,
and though the men do not observe this rule very strictly,
the women are never given in marriage to one not in the
rank of the priesthood Hussein Bey ought to take his
wife from the family of Chul Bey.
The language in general use amongst all the Yezidis is a
Kurdish dialect, and very few, except the Sheikhs and Cawals,
are acquainted with Arabic The chants and hymns, — the
only form of prayer, which, as far as I could ascertain, they
possess, — are, as I have already stated, in Arabic They
have a sacred volume, containing their traditions, their
hyrons, directions for the performance of their rites, and
other matters connected with their religion. It is preser>-ed
either at Baazini or Baasheikhah, and is regarded \^*ith so
much superstitious reverence that I failed in ever}' endeavour
to obtain a copy, or even to see it This I much regretted,
as its contents would probably throw some light upon the
origin and history of tiiis remarkable sect, and would clear
* In the mosque, and when prayers are said by several Mohammedans
t<^;ether, one person, not necessarily a moolah, officiates as leader in
reciting the prayers, and going through the necessary prostrations. He is
called in Persia, the Peesh-Namaz.
+ AH Bey, Hussein Bey*s father, was initiated in the performance of
all the Yezidi religious ceremonies.
VIII.] TRADITIONS OF THE YEZIDIS, 205
up many doubts which still hang over their tenets. There
are only one or two persons amongst the Yezidis who can
read or write : even Sheikh Nasr is unacquainted with the
alphabet. Those who know how to read have only been
taught in order that they may preserve the sacred book, and
may refer to it for the doctrines and ceremonies of the sect.
They will not receive converts to their faith.
The Yezidis have a tradition that they originally came
from Busrah, and from the country watered by the lower
part of the Euphrates ; and that, after their emigration, they
first settled in Syria, and subsequently took possession of the
Sinjar hill, and the districts they now inhabit in Kurdistan.
This tradition, with the peculiar nature of their tenets and
ceremonies, points to a Sabaean or Chaldaean origin. With
the scanty materials which we possess regarding their history,
and owing to the ignorance prevailing amongst the people
themselves, — for I believe that even the priests, including
Sheikh Nasr, have but a very vague idea of what they pro-
fess, and of the meaning of their religious forms, — it is
difficult to come to any conclusion as to the source of their
peculiar opinions and observances. There is lii them a
strange mixture of Sabaeanism, Christianity, and Mohammed-
anism, with a tincture of the doctrines of the Gnostics and
Manichaeans. Sabaeanism, however, appears to be the pre-
vailing feature ; and it is not improbable that the sect may
be a remnant of the ancient Chaldees, who have, at various
times, outwardly adopted the forms and tenets of the ruling
people to save themselves from persecution and oppression ;
and have gradually, through ignorance, confounded them
with their own belief and mode of worship. Such has been
the case with a no less remarkable sect^ the Sabaeans, or
Mendai (the Christians of St. John, as they are commonly
called), who still inhabit the banks of the Euphrates and the
districts of ancient Susiana.
The Yezidis are known amongst themselves by the name
of the district, or tribe, to which they respectively belong.
Those who inhabit the country near the foot of the Kurdish
Hills, are called Dasni or Daseni, most probably from the
2o6 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
ancient name of a province.* Tribes of Yezidis are found
in the north of Syria, in Northern Kurdistan, Georgia (where
they have migrated), Gebel Tour, the Sinjar, Bohtan, Sheik-
han, and Missouri In the plains, their principal settlements
are in the villages of Baazani, Baasheikhah, and SemiL
Having spent three days at Sheikh Adi, and witnessed all
the ceremonies at which a stranger could be present, I pre-
pared to return to Mosul Hussein Bey, Sheikh Nasr, and
the principal Sheikhs and Cawals, insisted upon accompany-
ing me about three miles down the valley, as I preferred this
road to the precipitous pathway over the mountains. After
parting with me, the chiefs returned to the tomb to finish
their festival I made my way to the village of Ain Sifiii,
and reached Mosul early in the afternoon.
Four years later I was again present at the annual festival
held at the shrine of Sheikh Adi, and I will now relate what
took place on that occasion, in order that my account of this
curious and little-known sect of the Yezidis may be as com-
plete as I can make itf I was accompanied on this second
visit by Mr. Vice-consul Rassam and his dragoman Khodja
Toma. We rode the first day fi-om Mosul to Baadri, and
were met on the road by Hussein Bey and a large company
of Yezidi horsemen. Sheikh Nasr had already gone to the
tomb, to make ready for the ceremonies. The young chief
entertained us for the night, and on the following morning, an
hour after sunrise, we left the village for Sheikh Adi. At
some distance from the sacred valley we were met by Sheikh
Nasr, Pir Sino, the Cawals, the priests, and the chiefs. They
conducted us to the same building in the sacred grove that
I had occupied on my former visit The Cawals assembled *
round us and welcomed our coming on their tambourines
and flutes ; and soon about us was formed one of those
singularly beautiful and picturesque groups which had struck
me so much on my previous visit to the Yezidi festival
* There is a tribe of Kurds of this name, living in the mountains
near Suleimaniyah.
+ This account of a visit to the Yezidis was originally contained in
the narrative of my second expedition to Assyria. (See * Nineveh and
Babylon,' chap. iv. unabridged edition.)
VIII.] SHEIKH JINDL 207
The Yezidis had assembled in less numbers than when I
had last met them in the valley. Only a few of the best
armed of the people of the Sinjar had ventured to face the
dangers of the road then occupied by the Arabs. The
Kochers, and the tribes of Dereboun, were kept away by
fear of the Bedouins. The inhabitants of Kherzan and
Redwan were harassed by the conscription. Even the
people of Baasheikhah and Baazani had been so much vexed
by a recent visit from the Pasha of Mosul, that they had no
heart for festivities.
About an hour after sunset, Cawal Yusuf summoned Mr.
Hormuzd Rassam and myself, who were alone allowed to be
present, to the inner yard, or sanctuary, of the temple. We
were placed in a room from the windows of which we could
see all that took place in the court. The Cawals, Sheikhs,
Fakirs, and principal chiefs were already assembled. In the
centre of the court was an iron lamp, with four burners — a
simple dish with four lips for the wicks, supported on a shaqj
iron rod driven into the ground. Near it stood a Fakir,
holding in one hand a lighted torch, and in the other a large
vessel of oil, from which he, from time to time, replenished
the lamp, loudly invoking Sheikh Adi. The Cawals stood
against the wall on one side of the court, and commenced a
slow chant, some playing on the flute, and some on the tambou-
rine, and others accompanying the measure with their voices.
The Sheikhs and chiefs now formed a procession, walking
two and two. At their head was Sheikh Jindi. ' He wore a*
tall shaggy black cap, the hair of which hung over the upper
part of his face. A long robe, striped with horizontal stripes
of black and dark red, fell to his feet. A countenance more
severe, and more imposing, than that of Sheikh Jindi could
not well be imagined. A beard, black as jet, fell low on his
breast ; his dark piercing eyes glittered through his ragged
eyebrows, like burning coals through the bars of a grate. The
colour of his face was of the deepest brown, his teeth white
as snow, and his features, though stem beyond measure,
singularly noble and well formed. It was a byword with us
that Sheikh Jindi had never been seep to smile. To look at
him was to feel that a laugh could not be bom in him. As
2o8
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
he moved, with a slow and solemn step, the flickering lamp
deepening the shadows of his solemn and rugged counte-
nance, it would have been impossible to conceive a being
more eminently fitted to take the lead in ceremonies conse-
crated to the Evil One. He is the Peesh-Namaz, * the leader
of prayer,' to the Yezidi sect. Behind him were two vene-
Sheikh Nasr, High Priest of the Yezidis.
rable Sheikhs. They were followed by Hussein Bey and
Sheikh Nasr, and the other chiefs and Sheikhs came after.
Their long robes were all of the purest white. As they walked
slowly round, sometimes stopping, then resuming their mea-
sured step, they chanted prayers in glory and honour of the
VIII.] YEZIDI CEREMONIES, 209
Deity. The Cawals accompanied the chant with their flutes,
beating at intervals their tambourines. Round the burning
lamp, and within the circle formed by the procession, danced
the Fakirs in their black dresses, with solemn pace timed to
the music, raising and swinging to and fro their arms after
the fashion of Eastern dancers. To hymns in praise of the
Deity succeeded others in honour of Melek Isa and Sheikh
Adi. The chants then passed into quicker strains, the tam-
bourines were beaten more frequently, the Fakirs became
more active in their motions, and the women made the loud
tahlel^ the ceremonies ending with that extraordinary scene
of noise and excitement that I have described. When the
prayers were ended, those who marched in procession kissed,
as they passed by, the right side of the doorway leading into
the temple, where a serpent is figured on the wall ; but not,
as I was assured, the image itself, which has no typical or
other meaning, according to Sheikh Nasr and Cawal Yusuf.
Hussein Bey then placing himself on the step at this entrance,
received the homage of the Sheikhs and elders, each touching
the hand of the young chief with his o\^n, and raising it to
his hps. All present, afterwards, gave one another the kiss
of peace.
The ceremonies having thus been brought to a close,
Hussein Bey and Sheikh Nasr came to me, and led me into
the inner court. Carpets had been spread at the doorway of
the temple for myself and the two chiefs ; the Sheikhs, Cawals,
and principal people of the sect, seated themselves, or rather
crouched, against the walls. By the light of a lamp, dimly
breaking the gloom within the temple, I could see Sheikh
Jindi unrobing. During the prayers, priests were stationed
at the doorway, and none were allowed to enter except a few
women and girls : the wives and daughters of Sheikhs and
Cawals had free access to the building, and appeared to join
in the ceremonies. The Vice-consul and Khodja Toma were
now admitted, and took their places with us at the upper
end of the court.
The private and domestic affairs of the sect were then dis-
cussed, and various reforms proposed. The mode of con-
tracting marriages required some change. The large suras of
2IO NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
money demanded by parents for their daughters had been
the cause that many girls remained unmarried, a state of
things rarely found in Eastern countries, and the source of
loud complaints amongst the younger members of the com-
munity. Rassam suggested that the price paid to the father
should be reduced, or he should encourage elopements, and
give the fugitives the benefit of his protection. The pro-
posed alternative caused much merriment ; but one of the
old Sheikhs of Baazani at once consented to take 300 piastres
(about 2/. loj.) for his daughter, instead of 3000, which he
had previously asked. This led to several betrothals on the
spot, amidst much mirth and great applause on the part of
such young Cawals as were anxious to get married. It was
nearly midnight before the assembly broke up. We then
went into the outer court, where dances were kept up until
daybreak, by the light of torches ; all the young men and
women joining in the Debka.
Soon after sunrise on the following morning the Sheikhs and
Cawals offered up a short prayer in the court of the temple,
but without any of Ihe ceremonies of the previous evening.
Some prayed in the sanctuary, frequently kissing the threshold
and holy places within the building. When they had ended
they took the green cloth which covers the tomb of Sheikh
Adi, and, followed by the Cawals playing on their tam-
bourines and flutes, walked with it round the outer court
The people flocked about them, and reverently carried the
comers of the drapery to their lips, making afterwards a small
offering of money. After the cover had been again thrown
over the tomb, the chiefs and priests seated themselves round
the inner court The Fakirs and Sheikhs especially devoted
to the ser\dce of the sanctuary, who are called Kotcheks,
now issued from the kitchens of the temple bearing large
platters of smoking harisa^ which they placed on the ground.
* A mixture of bruised wheat, chopped meat, milk and curds, boiled
into a thick pulpy mass, over which melted butter is poured. It is a
favourite dish in S}Tia and Mesopotamia, and is cooked by families
on festivals, or on certain days of the year, in consequence of vows
made during sickness or in travel. On these occasions it is sent round
to friends, and distributed amongst the poor. The wealthy sprinkle it
with cinnamon and sugar, and it is then agreeable to the taste, and pala-
VIII.] DRESS OF THE YEZIDI WOMEN, 2u
The company collected in hungry groups round the messes,
and whilst they were eating, the Kotcheks standing by called
upon them continually in a loud voice to partake of the
hospitality of Sheikh Adi. After the empty plates had been
removed, a collection was made towards the support of the
temple and tomb of the saint. It is also x:ustomary for all
families who come to the annual festival to send some dish
as an offering to Sheikh Nasr. He merely tastes these con-
tributions to show his acceptance of them, and they are then
shared by the servants of the sanctuary.
These ceremonies occupied us until nearly mid-day; we
then sat by the fountain in the valley, and the men and
women danced before us, the boys climbing into the trees
and hanging on the boughs to see the dancers. Sugar, dates,
and raisins were afterwards scrambled for by the children;
the men soon taking part in the amusement.
In the afternoon the wives and daughters of the chiefs and
Cawals called upon me. The families of the Cawals, evidently
descended from the same stock, are remarkable for the beauty
both of the men and women, all of whom are strikingly like
one another. Their complexion is, perhaps, too dark, but
their features are regular and admirably formed. The dresses
of the girls were elegant, and as rich as the material they
could olnain would allow. Some wove flowers into their
hair, others encircled their black turbans with a single wreath
of myrtle, a simple and elegant ornament. They all wore
many strings of coins, amber, coral, agate, and glass beads
round their necks, and some had the black skull cap com-
pletely covered with gold and silver money. A kind of
apron of grey or yellowish check, like a Scotch plaid, tied
over one shoulder, and falling in front over the silk dress, is
a peculiar feature in the costume of the Yezidi girls, and of
some Christians from the same district. Unmarried women
have the neck bare, the married conceal it with a white ker-
chief, which passes under the chin, and is tied on the top of
the head. The brightest colours are worn by the girls, but
table enough. It is sold early in the morning in the bazaars of many
Eastern towns.
p 2
Chap. VIII.] CUSTOMS OF THE KAIDL 213
the matrons are usually clothed in plain white. The women
of the Cawal families always wear black turbans and skull
caps. Cawal Yusuf, to show how the Frank ladies he had
seen at Constantinople were honoured by their husbands,
made his young wife walk arm in arm with him before us, to
the great amusement of the bystanders.
At night the same religious ceremonies were repeated in
the temple, and I was allowed to sleep in the room over-
looking the inner court from whence I had witnessed them
on the previous evening. After all had lain down to rest,
a Yezidi Mullah recited, in a low chanting tone, a religious
history, or discourse, consisting of the adventures and teach-
ings of a certain Mirza Mohammed. He stood before the
burning lamp, and around him were stretched at full length
oh the stone pavement, and covered by their white cloaks,
the sleeping Sheikhs and Cawals. The scene was singularly
picturesque and impressive.
The Kaidi, a Yezidi tribe, perform, at the annual festival,
the following curious ceremony, said to be of great antiquity,
which we witnessed on the day of our departure from Sheikh
Adi. They ascend, in company with those who have fire-
arms, the rocks overhanging the temple, and, placing small
oak twigs in the muzzles of their guns, discharge them into
the ^r. After having kept up a running fire for nearly half
an hour, they descend into the outer court and again let
off their pieces. When entering the inner court they go
through a martial dance before Hussein Bey, who stands on
the steps of the sanctuary amidst tHe assembled priests and
elders. The dance being ended, a bull, presented by the
Yezidi chief, is led out from the temple. The Kaidi rush
upon the animal with shouts, and, seizing it, lead it off in
triumph to Sheikh Mirza, one of the heads of the sect, from
whom they also receive a present, generally consisting of
sheep. During these ceremonies the assembled crowd of
men, women, and children form groups on the steep sides of
the ravine, some standing on the well-wooded terraces, others
on projecting rocks and ledges, whilst the boys clamber into
the high trees, from whence they can obtain a view of the
proceedings. The women make the tahlel without ceasing,
214 NJXEVEH A\D ITS REMAIXS. [Chaf.
and the valley resounds with the deafening noise. The kyng
white garments fluttering amongst the trees, and the g^j
costumes of some of the groups, produce a very beantifal
and novel effect
The Kaidi were formerly a powerful tribe, sending as manr
as six hundred matchlock-men to the great feast They have
been greatly reduced in numbers and wealth by wars and
oppression.
Cawal Yusuf had promised, on the occasion of this festiva],
to show me the sacred book of the Yezidis. He according^
brought a volume to me one morning, accompanied by tibe
secretary of Sheikh Xasr, the only Yezidi, as far as I am
aware, who could read it It consisted of a few tattered
leaves, of no ancient date, containing a poetical rhapsody od
the merits and attributes of Sheikh Adi, who is identified
with the Deity himselC as the origin and creator of all things^
though e>-identiy distinguished from the Eternal Essence by
being represented as seeking the truth, and as reaching
through it the highest place, which he declares to be attam-
able by all those who like himself shall find it*
This was the only written work that I was able to obtain
from the Yezidis ; their Cawals repeated several prayers and
h\Tnns to me, which were simply laudatory of the Deity.
Cawal Yusuf informed me that, before the great massacre of
the sect by the Bey of Rahwanduz, they possessed many books
which were lost during the general panic, or destroyed by the
Kurds. He admitted that this was only a fragmentary com-
position, and by no means ' the Book ' which contained the
theology and religious laws of the Yeadi He even hinted
that the great work did still exist, and I am by no means
certain that there is not a copy at Baasheikhah or RaayaTi^
The account given by the Cawal seems to be confirmed by
an allusion made in the poem to the * Book of Glad Tidings,'
and *" the Book that comfcHteth the oppressed,' which could
scarcely have been inserted for any particular purpose, sa<±
as to deceive their Mohammedan neighbours.
Tahyar Pasha had for some time been planning an expe-
* For a translatKm of this poem or riiapsody, see the complete edidoo
of my * Nioerdi and Bab]4oii,' p. 89.
VIII.] EXPEDITION TO THE SIN JAR. 215
dition to the Sin jar, not with any hostile intention, but for
the purpose of examining the state of the country j which
had been ruined by the vexatious extortions and cruelty of
the late governor of Mosul. He had previously sent an agent
to inquire into the condition of the villages ; and a deputa-
tion of the inhabitants had returned with him to petition for
a diminution of taxes, which, from the destitute state of the
district, they were unable to pay.
His Excellency had invited me to accompany him on this
expedition, the arrangements for which, after numerous de-
lays, were completed on the 8th of October. Three o'clock
of that day was declared to be the fortunate hour for leaving
the town. The principal inhabitants, with the Cadi and
Mufti at their head, were collected in the large square op-
posite the palace and without the walls, ready to escort the
Pasha, as a mark of respect, some distance from the gates.
It was with difficulty that I made my way to the apartments
of the Governor, through the crowd of irregular troops, and
servants which thronged the courtyard of the serai. The
attendants of his Excellency were hurrying to and fro, laden
with every variety of utensil and instrument ; some carrying
gigantic telescopes, or huge bowls in leather cases ; others
labouring under bundles of pipe-sticks, or bending under the
weight of calico bags crammed with state documents. The
grey-headed Kiayah had inserted his feet into a pair of capa-
cious boots, leaving room enough for almost any number of
intruders. Round his fez, and the lower part of his face,
were wound endless folds of white linen, which gave him the
appearance of a patient emerging from a hospital; and he
carried furs and cloaks enough to keep out the cold of the
frigid zone. The Divan Effendesi, although a man of the
pen, strutted about with sword and spurs followed by clerks
and inkstand bearers. At the door of the harem waited a
bevy of Aghas ; amongst them the lord of the towel, the lord
of the washing-basin, the lord of the cloak, the chief of the
coffee-makers, and the chief of the pipe-bearers, the treasurer,
and the seal-bearer.* At length the Pasha approached ; the
♦ These are all offices in the household of a Turkish pasha.
2i6 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
Cawasses forced the crowd out of the way ; and as his Excel-
lency placed his foot in the stirrup, the trumpet sounded as
a signal for the procession to move onwards. First came a
regiment of infantry, followed by a company of artillerymen
with their guns. The trumpeters, and the Pasha's own
standard, a mass of green silk drapery, embroidered in gold
with verses from the Koran, succeeded ; behind were six led
Arab horses, richly caparisoned in coloured saddle-cloths,
glittering with gold embroidery. The Pasha himself then
appeared, surrounded by the chiefs of the town and the offi-
cers of his household. The procession was finished by the
irregular cavalry, divided into companies, each headed by its
respective commander, and by the wild Suiters, dressed up in
motley garments and foxes' tails, with their small kettle-drums
fastened in front of their saddles.
I was accompanied by my Cawass and my own servants,
and rode as it best suited^ and amused me, in different parts
of the procession. We reached Hamaydat, a ruined village
on the banks of the Tigris, three caravan hours from Mosul,
about sunset. Here we had the first proofs of the deficiencies
in the commissariat arrangements ; for there was neither
food for ourselves nor the horses, and we all went supperless
to bed.
On the following day, after a ride of six hours through a
barren and uninhabited plain, bounded to the east and west
by ranges of low limestone hills, we reached a ruined village,
built on the summit of an ancient artificial mound, called
Abou Maria. The Aneyza Arabs were known to be out on
this side of the Euphrates, and during our march we observed
several of their scouts watching our movements. The ir-
regular cavalry frequently rushed off in pursuit ; but the
Arabs, turning their fleet mares towards the desert,. were
soon lost in the distance.
We passed the ruins of three villages. The plain, once
thickly inhabited, is now deserted; and the wells, formerly
abundant, are filled up. In spring, the Arab tribe of Jehesh
frequently encamp near the pools of water supplied by the
rains. The remains of buildings, and the traces of former
cultivation, prove that at some period, not very remote,
VIII.] TEL AFER, 217
others than the roving Bedouins dwelt on these lands; whilst
the artificial mounds, scattered over the face of the country,
show that, long ere the Mussulman invasion, this was one of
the flourishing districts of ancient Assyria.
A most abundant spring issues from the foot of the mound
of Abou Maria. The water is collected in large, well-built
reservoirs. Near them is a mill, now in ruins, but formerly
turned by the stream, within a few yards of its source. Such
an ample supply of water, although brackish to the taste,
must always have attracted a population in a country where
it is scarce. The village, which was deserted during the
oppressive government of Mohammed Pasha, belonged to
the Jehesh.
Three hours' ride, still through the desert, brought us to
Tel Afer, which we reached suddenly on emerging from a
range of low hills. The place had a much more important
and flourishing appearance than I could have expected. An
eminence, partly artificial, is crowned by a castle whose walls
are flanked by numerous towers of various shapes. The
town, containing some well-built houses, lies at the foot of
the mound, and is partly surrounded by gardens planted with
olive, fig, and other fruit trees ; beyond this cultivated plot
is the broad expanse of the desert A spring, as abundant
as that of Abou Maria, gushes out of a rock beneath the
castle, supplies the inhabitants with water, irrigates their gar-
dens, and turns their mills.
Tel Afer was once a town of some importance ; it is men-
tioned by the early Arab geographers, and may perhaps be
identified with the Telassar of Isaiah, referred to, as it is, in
connection with Gozan and Haran.* It has been three
times besieged, within a few years, by Ali Pasha of Baghdad,
Hafiz Pasha, and Injeh Bairakdar Mohammed Pasha. On
each occasion the inhabitants offered a vigorous resistance.
Mohammed Pasha took the place by assault. More than
two-thirds of the inhabitants were put to the sword, and the
property of the remainder was confiscated. Great wealth is
said to have been discovered in the place, on its pillage by
* Isaiah, xxxvii. 12. The name does not occur elsewhere in the Bible ;
and we have consequently no means of determining its locality.
2l8
NIXEl'EH AXD ITS REMAIXS.
[Chap.
Mohammed Pasha, who took all the gold and silver, and
distributed the remainder of the spoil amongst his soldiers.
The inhabitants of Tel Afer are of Turcoman origin, and
speak the Turkish language. They occasionally intermarry,
however, with the Arabs, and generally understand Arabic
TEL AFER.
Towards evening I ascended the mound, and visited the
castle, in which was quartered a small body of irregular
troops. The houses, formerly inhabited by families whose
habitations are now built at the foot of the artificial hill, are
in ruins, except that occupied by the commander of the
garrison. From the walls I had an uninterrupted view over
a vast plain, stretching westi^ard towards the Euphrates, and
VIII.] ARRIVAL AT MIRK AN, 219
losing itself in the hazy distance. The ruins of ancient
towns and villages rose on all sides ; and, as the sun went
down, I counted above one hundred mounds, throwing their
dark and lengthening shadows across the plain. These were
the remains of Assyrian civilisation and prosperity. Centuries
have elapsed since a settled population dwelt in this district
of Mesopotamia. Now, not even the tent of the Bedouin
could be seen. The whole was a barren, deserted waste.
We remained two days at Tel Afer. The commissariat
was replenished as far as possible from the scanty stores of
the inhabitants. The Pasha recommended forbearance and
justice ; but his advice was not followed ; nor were his orders
obeyed. The houses were brokeh into, and a general pillage
ensued. At length, on the 13th, we resumed our march.
The Sin jar is about thirty miles distant from Tel Afer. A
very low range of hills diverges from its southern spur, and
unites with that behind the town. The Pasha, with his
troops, took the road across the plain.
We passed the first night on the banks of a small salt
stream, near the ruins of a village, called, by the people of
the Sinjar and Tel Afer, Zabardok; and by the Arabs simply
ICharba, or the ruins. We had seen during the day several
other ruins and watercourses. The second day we encamped
in the plain, near the southern end of the Sinjar mountain,
and under the village of Mirkan, the white houses of which,
rising one above the other on the declivity, were visible from
below. Here the Pasha was met by all the chiefs of the
mountain, except those of the small district in which we had
halted".
Mirkan is one of the principal Yezidi settlements in the
Sinjar. Its inhabitants had been exposed to great extortions,
and many had been even put to death by Mohammed Pasha.
They expected similar treatment at the hands of Tahyar
Pasha. No promises could remove their fears, and they de-
clared their intention of resolutely defending their village.
The Pasha sent up an officer of his household, with a few irre-
gular troops, to reassure them, and to restore obedience. I
accompanied him. As we entered the village we were re-
ceived by a general discharge of fire-arms. Two horsemen,
220 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
who had accidentally, — and as I thought at the time some-
what disrespectfully, — pushed forward before the officer and
myself, fell dead at our feet, and several of our party were
wounded. The Pasha, exasperated at this unprovoked and
wanton attack, ordered an advance of the H)rtas and Arab
irregulars ; who, long thirsting for plunder, hastened towards
the village. The Yezidis had already deserted it, and had
taken refuge in a narrow gorge abounding in caverns and
isolated rocjcs, — their usual place of refuge on such occasions.
The village was soon occupied ; the houses were entered,
and plundered of the little property that had been left
behind. A few aged women and decrepit old men, too
infirm to leave with the rest, and found hiding in the small
dark rooms, were murdered, and their heads severed from
their bodies. Blazing fires were made in the neat dwellings,
and the whole village was delivered to the flames. Even
the old Pasha, with his grey hair and tottering step, hurried
to and firo amongst the smoking ruins, and helped to add
the torch where the fire was not doing its work.
The old Turkish spirit of murder and plunder was roused ;
the houses were soon burnt to the ground ; but the inhab-
itants were still safe. When the irregulars had secured all
the property they could discover, they rushed towards the
gorge, scarcely believing that the Yezidis would venture to
oppose them. But they were received by a steady and well-
directed fire. The foremost fell, almost to a man. The
caverns were high up amongst the rocks, and all attempts to
reach them completely failed. The contest was carried on
till night; when the troops, dispirited and beaten, were
called back to their tents.
In the evening the heads of the miserable old men and
women, taken in the village, were paraded about the camp ;
and those who were fortunate enough to possess such
trophies wandered from tent to tent, claiming a present
as a reward for their prowess. I appealed to the Pasha,
who had been persuaded that every head brought to him
was that of a powerful chief, and after some difficulty pre-
vailed upon him to have them buried ; but the troops were
not willing to obey his orders, and it was late in the night .
VIII.] ATTACK ON THE YEZIDIS. 221
before they were induced to resign their bloody spoil, which
they had arranged in grim array, and lighted up with
torches.
On the following morning the contest was renewed ; but
the Yezidis defended themselves with undiminished courage.
The loss of the Hytas was very considerable ; not a cavern
had been carried ; nor a Yezidi, as far as the assailants
could tell, killed, or even wounded.
The next day the Pasha ordered a fresh attack. To
encourage his men he advanced himself into the gorge, and
directed his carpet to be spread on a rock. Here he sat,
with the greatest apathy, smoking his pipe, and carrying on
a frivolous conversation with me, although he was the object
of the aim of the Yezidis ; several persons within a few feet
of us falling dead, and the balls frequently throwing up the
dirt into our faces. Coffee was brought to him occasionally
as usual, and his pipe was filled when the tobacco was
exhausted; yet he was not a soldier, but what is termed
* a man of the pen.' I have frequently seen similar instances
amongst Turks of calm indifference in the midst of danger,
when such displays were scarcely called for, and would
be very unwillingly made by an European. Notwithstand-
ing the example set by his Excellency,' and the encourage-
ment which his presence gave to the troops, they were not
more successful in their attempts to dislodge the Yezidis
than they had been the day before. One after another, the
men were carried out of the ravine, dead or dying. The
wounded were brought to the Pasha, who gave them water,
money, or words of encouragement. The * Ordou cadesi,'
or Cadi of the camp, reminded them that it was against the
infidels they were fighting ; that every one who fell by the
enemies of the Prophet 'was rewarded with instant trans-
lation . to Paradise j whilst those who killed an unbeliever
were entitled to the same inestimable privilege. The dying
were comforted, and the combatants animated by the pro-
mises and exhortations of the Cadi ; who, however, kept
himself well out of the way of danger behind a rock.
Attempts were made during the day to induce the Yezidis
to surrender, and there was some chance of success. How-
222 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
ever, night drew near, and hostilities still continued. The
regular and irregular troops were then posted at all the
known places of access to the gorge. The morning came,
and the attack was recommenced. No signs of defence
issued from the valley. The H}*tas rushed in, but were no
longer met by the steady fire of the previous day. They
paused, fearing some trick or ambuscade ; they then advanced
cautiously, but still unnoticed. They reached the mouths of
the caves ; — no one opposed tliem. It was some time, how-
ever, before they ventured to look into thenL They were
empty. The Yezidis had fled during the night, and had left
the ravine by some pathway known only to themselves, and
which had escaped the watchfulness of the Turkish soldiery.
Whilst attempts were being made to discover the retreat of
the fugitives, the Turkish camp remained near the \'illage
of Mirkan. 1 took this opportunity of visiting other parts
of the Sinjar. The residence of the governor of the district
is in the village built amongst the ruins of the old city —
the Singara of the Romans, and the * Belled Sinjar * of the
Arabs. A small mud fort, raised a few years ago, stands on
a hill in the midst of the remains of walls and foundations j
but the principal part of the ancient city appears to have oc-
cupied the plain below. Around this fort, at the time of my
visit, were congregated about two hundred famiHes. The
Yezidi inhabitants of the village, unlike those of the other
districts, are mixed Avith Mussulmans. The latter, however,
are so lax in their religious obser\ances, and in dress so like
the Yezidis, that it is difficult to distinguish them from the
unbeHevers. I was continually falling into mistakes, and
eliciting a very indignant exclamation of * God forbid ! *
It would not be easy to point out, with any degree of
certainty, ruins at Belled Sinjar ' more ancient than the
Mohammedan conquest It became a place of some im-
portance in the early days of Islam, and had its own semi-
independent rulers. There are the remains of several fine
buildings ; and the lower part of a fallen minaret, constructed,
like that of the great mosque of Mosul, of coloured tiles and
bricks, is a conspicuous object firom all parts of the plain.
There are very abundant springs within the circuit of the
VIII.] TRADE OF THE SIN JAR. 223
old walls ; the air is declared to be salubrious, and the soil
around is rich and productive.
All the villages of the Sin jar are built upon one plan.
The houses rise in stages on the hill-sides, and are sur-
rounded by terraces, formed of rough stones piled one above
the other as walls to confine the scanty earth. These ter-
races are planted with olive and fig trees; vineyards are
found near some of the villages. The houses, which are
flat-roofed, are exceedingly clean and neat, and frequently
contain several rooms. The walls of the interior are full of
small recesses, like pigeon-holes, which are partly ornamental,
and partly used to hold domestic utensils and other property.
They give a very singular and original appearance to the
rooms j and the oddity of the effect is considerably increased
by masses of red and black paint daubed in patches on the
white wall.
The principal, and indeed now the only, trade carried on
by the inhabitants of the Sinjar is in dried figs, which are
celebrated, and supply the markets in the neighbouring pro-
vinces. The soil is fertile, and, as the means of irrigation
are abundant, com and various useful articles of produce
might be raised in great plenty from the extensive tracks of
arable land belonging to the villages. But the people have
been almost ruined by misgovernment ; they can now scarcely
cultivate com enough for their own immediate wants.*
The Pasha still lingered at Mirkan ; and as I was anxious
to return to Mosul, to renew the excavations, I took my leave
of him, and rode through the desert to Tel Afer. I was ac-
companied by a small body of irregular cavalry, —a necessary
escort, as the Aneyza Arabs were hanging about the camp,
and plundering stragglers and caravans of supplies. As even-
ing approached, we saw, congregated near a small stream,
what appeared to be a large company of dismounted Arabs,
their horses standing by them. As we were already near
them, and could not have escaped the watchful eye of the
Bedouin, we prepared for an encounter. I placed the bag-
gage in the centre of my small party, and spread out the
* A further account of the district of Sinjar will be found in my
* Nineveh and Babylon,' ch. iv. and v.
224 XIXEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
horsemen as widely as possible to exaggerate our numbers.
We approached cautiously, and was surprised to see that the
horses still remained without their riders: we drew still
nearer, when they all galloped off towards the desert They
were wild asses. We attempted to follow them. After run-
ning a little distance they stopped to gaze at us, and I got
sufficiently near to see them well ; but as soon as they found
that we were in pursuit, they hastened their speed, and were
soon lost in the distance.*
I reached Mosul in two days, taking the road by Kessi
Kupri, and avoiding the desert beyond Abou-Maria, which
we had crossed on our march to the Sinjar.
* Xenophon mentions these beautiful animals, which he must have
seen during his march over these very plains. He faithfiilly describes
the country, and the animals and birds which inhabit it, as they ai« to
this day, except that the ostrich is not now to be found so far north.
*The country,' saj-s he, * was a plain throughout, as even as the sea,
and full of wormwood ; if any other kinds of shrubs or reeds grew
there they had all an aromatic smell ; but no trees appeared. Of wild
creatures, the most numerous were wild asses, and not a few ostriches,
besides bustards and roe deer (gazelles), which our horsemen sometiiiies
chased. The asses, when they were pursued, having gained ground of
the horses, stood still (for they exceeded them much in speed); and
when these came up with them, they did the same thing again ; so that
our horsemen could take them by no other means but by di^^ding them-
selves into relays, and succeeding one another in the chase. The
flesh of those that were taken was like that of red deer, but more tender.'
(Anab. lib. i. c. 5.) In fleetness they equal the gazelle; and to over-
take them is a feat which only one or two of the most celebrated mares
have been known to accomplish. The Arabs sometimes catch the foals
during the spring, and bring them up with milk in their tents. I en-
deavoured in vain to rear a pair. They are of a light fawn colour —
almost pink. The Arabs still eat their flesh. The * wild asses of the
desert ' are mentioned in Job, xxiv. 5, xxxix. 5.
IX.] EXCAVATIONS ORGANISED. 225
CHAPTER IX.
Excavations undertaken by the British Museum — Choice of workmen —
Dwelling-houses built at Nimroud — Discovery of bas-rdiefs — Of armour
and helmets — Of vases — Of new chambers — Of the obdisk — Discoveries
in the south-west corner of the mound — Winged lions — Crouching
sphinxes — Discovery of tombs in the south-east corner of the mound —
Arab workmen — Mode of irrigation — Customs of the Arabs — Facility
of divorce — Arab women — The Tiyari or Chaldceans — A raft plundered
— Seizure of an Arab Sheikh — Departure of sculpturts for Busrah.
On my return to Mosul, I received letters from England, in-
forming me that Sir Stratford Canning had made over his
share in the discoveries in Assyria to the British nation ; and
that the British Museum had received a grant from Parlia-
ment for the continuation of the researches commenced at
Nimroud, and elsewhere. The grant was small, and scarcely
adequate to the objects in view. There were many difficulties
to contend with, and I was doubtful whether, with the means
placed at my disposal, I should be able to fulfil the expecta-
tions which appeared to have been formed as to the results
of the undertaking. The sum given to M. Botta for the ex-
cavations at Khorsabad alone, greatly exceeded the whole
grant to the Museum, which was to include private expenses,
those of carriage, and man/ extraordinary outlays inevitable
in the East, when works of this nature are to be carried on.
I determined, however, to accept the charge of superintending
the excavations, to make every exertion, and to economise as
far as it was in my power — that the nation might possess as
extensive and complete a collection of Assyrian antiquities
as, considering the smallness of the means at my command,
it was possible to bring together.
It was, in the first place, necessary to organise a band of
workmen best fitted to carry on the work. A general scarcity
Q
226 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
of corn had driven the Arab tribes to the neighbourhood of
the town, where they sought to gain a livelihood by enga-
ging in labours not very palatable to a Bedouin. I had no
difficulty in finding workmen amongst them. There was, at
the same time, this advantage in employing these wandering
Arabs — they brought their tents and families with them, and,
encamping round the ruins and the village, formed a very
efficient guard against their brethren of the desert, who look
to plunder, rather than to work, to supply their wants. To
increase my numbers I chose only one man from each family ;
and, as his male relations accompanied him, I had the use
of their services, as far as regarded the protection of my
sculptures. Being well acquainted with the Slieikhs of the
Jebours, I selected my workmen chiefly from that tribe. The
chiefs promised me protection ; and I knew enough of the
Arab character not to despair of bringing the men under
proper control. The Arabs were selected to remove the
earth — they were unable to dig ; this part of the labour re-
quired stronger and more active men ; and I chose for it
about fifty Nestorian Chaldaeans, who had sought work for
the winter in Mosul ; and many of whom, having already
been employed, had acquired some experience in excavating.
They went to Nimroud with their wives and families. I en-
gaged at the same time one Bainan, a Jacobite or Syrian
Christian, who was a skilful marble-cutter, and a very intel-
ligent man. I also made a valuable addition to my establish-
ment in a standard-bearer of the irregular troops, of whose
courage I had seen such convincing proofs during the ex-
pedition to the Sin jar, that I induced his commander to
place him in my service. His name was Mohammed Agha;
but he was generally called, from the office he held in' his
troop, the * Bairakdar,' or Standard-bearer. He was a native
of Scio, and had been carried off when a child, at the time
of the massacre, by an irregular trooper, who had brought
him up as a Mussulman. In his religious opinions and ob-
servances, however, he was as lax as men of his profession
usually are. He served me faithfully and honestly, was of
great use to me during the excavations, and became a general
favourite with all my people, even with the Arabs, who hate
IX.
AUTHOR'S HOUSE AT NIMROUD,
227
the Turks in general. Awad still continued in my employ ;
my Cawass, Ibrahim Agha, returned with me to Nimroud ;
and I hired a carpenter and two or three men of Mosul as
superintendents.
I was again amongst the ruins by the end of October. The
winter season was fast approaching, and it was necessary to
build a proper house for the shelter of myself and servants.
I marked out a plan on the ground, in the village of Nimroud,
and in a few days our habitations were complete. My work-
men built the walls with mud bricks dried in the sun, and the
roof with beams and branches of trees. A thick coat of mud
was laid over the whole, to exclude the rain. Two rooms for
The Author s House at Nimroud,
my own accommodation were divided by an Iwan, or apart-
ment, entirely open on one side, the whole being surrounded
by an outer wall. In a second court-yard were huts for my
Cawass, Arab guests, and servants, and stables for my horses.
Ibrahim Agha displayed his ingenuity by making equidistant
loopholes, of a most warlike appearance, in the outer walls ;
which I immediately ordered to be filled up, to avoid any
suspicion of being the constructor of forts and castles, with
Q 2
228 NIX EVEN AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
the intention of making a permanent Frank settlement in the
country. We did not, however, neglect precautions, in case
of an attack from the Bedouins, of whom Ibrahim Ag^ was
in constant dread. Unfortunately, the only shower of rain
that I saw during the remainder of my residence in Assyria,
fell before my walls were covered in, and so saturated the
mud bricks that they did not dry again before the following
spring. The consequence was that my house was very damp,
and the only verdure on which my eyes we^e permitted to
feast Ijefore my return to Europe, was furnished by my own
property, the walls of the rooms being continually clothed
with a crop of grass.
On the mound itself, and immediately above the great
winged lions first discovered, I built a house for my Nestorian
workmen and their families, and a hut, to which any small
objects discovered among the ruins could at once be removed
for safety. I divided my Arabs into three parties, according
to the branches of the tribe to which they belonged. About
forty tents were pitched on different parts of the mound, at
the entrances to the principal trenches. Forty more were
placed round my dwelling in the village of Nimroud, and the
rest on the bank of the river, where the sculptures were de-
posited previous to their embarkation on the rafts. The men
were all armed. I thus provided for the defence of my estab-
lishment
Mr. Hormuzd Rassam lived with me ; and to him I con-
fided the payment of the wages and the accounts, and the
general management of the workmen. He soon obtained an
extraordinary influeilce over the Arabs, and his fame spread
through the desert
The workmen were divided into bands. In each band
were generally eight or ten Arabs, who carried away the earth
in baskets ; and two, or four, Nestorian diggers, according to
the nature of the soil and rubbish which had to be excavated.
They were overlooked by a superintendent, whose duty it
was to keep them to their work, and to give me notice when
the diggers approached any slab, or exposed any small object
to view, that I might myself assist in its uncovering and re-
moval I scattered a few Arabs of a hostile tribe amongst
I X.] EXCA VA TIONS RECOMMENCED. 229
the rest, and by that means I was always made acquainted
with what was going on, could easily learn if there were plots
brewing, and could detect those who might attempt to appro-
priate any relics discovered during the excavations. The
smallness of the sum placed at my disposal, compelled me to
follow the same plan in the excavations that I had hitherto
adopted. I dug along the walls of the chambers, and ex-
posed the whole of the slabs with which they were panelled,
without removing the earth which filled up the rest of the room.
Thus, few chambers were fully explored ; and many small
objects of great interest may have been left undiscovered.
As I was directed in the instructions from the Trustees of
the British Museum to re-bury the buildings with earth after
they had been examined, I filled up the trenches, to avoid
unnecessary expense, with the rubbish taken from those sub-
sequently opened, having first copied the inscriptions, and
drawn the sculptures.
The excavations were recommenced, on a large scale, by
the ist of November. My working parties were distributed
over the mound — in the ruins of the N. W. and S. W. palaces ;
near the gigantic bulls in the centre ; and in the south-east
corner, where no traces of buildings had as yet been dis-
covered.
It will be remembered that the greater number of slabs
forming the southern side of the large hall in the N. W. palace
had fallen with their faces to the ground.* I was, in the first
place, anxious to raise these ^as-reliefs, and to pack them for
transport to England. To accomplish this, it was necessary
to remove a large accumulation of earth and rubbish — to
empty, indeed, nearly the whole hall, for the fallen slabs ex-
tended almost half-way across it The sculptures on nine
slabs were found to be in admirable preservation, although
the slabs had been broken by the fall. They were divided,
as those already described, into two compartments, by the
usual standard inscription.
The sculptures were of the highest interest. They repre-
sented the wars of the king, and his victories over foreign
nations. The upper bas-reliefs, on the first two slabs, formed
* See p. 86.
230 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
one subject — the king, with his warriors, in battle under the
walls of a hostile castle. He stood, gorgeously attired, in a
chariot drawn by three horses richly caparisoned, and was
discharging an arrow either against those who defended the
walls, or against a warrior, who, already wounded, was falling
from his chariot. An attendant protected the person of the
king with a shield, and a charioteer held the reins, and urged
on the horses. Above the
king was the emblem of
the supreme Deity, repre-
sented as at Persepolis by
a winged man within a cir-
cle,* and wearing a homed
cap resembling that of the
human-headed lions. Like
Emblem of the Deity. the kinfir, lic was shoot-
IN.W. Palace, Nimroud.) . ^' xi. i j /-
ing an arrow, the head of
which was in the form of a trident.
Behind the king were three chariots ; the first belonging
to an enemy, drawn by three horses — one of which was rear-
ing and another falling — and occupied by a wounded warrior
asking for quarter. In the others were two Assyrian warriors,
one discharging an arrow, the other guiding the horses, which
were at full speed. In each Assyrian chariot was a standard
— the devices, Avhich were enclosed in a circle ornamented
>vith tassels and streamers, being on one an archer, with the
homed cap but without wings, standing on a bull ; and on
the other two bulls, back to back. At the bottom of the first
bas-relief were wavy lines, to indicate a river or water, and
trees were scattered over both. Assyrian footmen, fighting
with and slaying the enemy, were introduced in several
places ; and three headless bodies above the principal figures
in the second bas-relief represented the dead in the back-
ground. +
On the upper part of the two slabs following the battle-
scene was represented the triumphal return of the Assyrians
after victory. In front of the procession were warriors throw-
* The circle, and not the figure, may be winged.
+ These bas-reliefs are now in the British Museum*
IX.J
NEW SCULPTUJ^ES.
231
ing the heads of the slain at the feet of the conquerors. Two
musicians, playing on stringed instruments, preceded the
charioteers, who were now seen unarmed, but still bearing
their standards ; above them hovered an eagle with a human
head in its talons. The king came next in his chariot, raising
in one hand his bow, and in the other two arrows — an atti-
tude in which he is frequently represented on Assyrian monu-
ments, and one probably denoting triumph over his enemies.
Above his horses was the presiding divinity ; also hold-
ing a bow. The at-
tendant, who in war
bore his shield, was
now replaced by an
eunuch, raising an
open parasol — an
Eastern attribute of
royalty. The horses
were led by grooms,
although the chario-
teer still held the
reins. Behind the
king's chariot was a horseman leading a second horse, gaily
caparisoned.
After the procession, were seen the castle and pavilion of
the victorious king — the former represented by a circle,
divided into four equal compartments, and surrounded by
towers and battlements. In each compartment were figures
evidently engaged in preparing the feast : one was slaying a
sheep ; another baking bread ; and others stood before bowls
and utensils placed on tables and stools, and probably con-
taining wine. The pavilion was supported by three columns ;
one surmounted by a fir-cone — the emblem so frequently
seen in the Assyrian sculptures ; the other two by figures of
the ibex or mountain goat. It was probably of silk or woollen
stuff, and was richly ornamented and edged with a fringe in
the shape of fir-cones and tulip flowers. Beneath the canopy
was a groom cleaning a horse ; other horses, picketed by
their halters, were feeding at a trough. An eunuch stood at
the entrance of the tent, to receive four prisoners, who, with
Emblem of the Deity. (N.W. Palace, Nimroud.)
232
XIXEVEH ASD ITS REMAIXS. [Chap. IX.
their hands bound behind their backs, were brought to him
by an Assyrian ^'arrior. Above this group were two singular
A Table.
(N.W. Palace, Ximroud.)
Tables, or Stands few Jars.
(N.W. Palace, Ninrnjud.)
lion-headed human figures, one holding a whip or thong in
the right hand, and grasping his under-jaw with the left, the
other raising both hands. They were clothed in tunics de-
scending to the knees, and skins falling from the head, over
the shoulders, to the ankles, and were accompanied by a man
raising a stick.
The four following bas-reliefs recorded a battle, in which
were represented the king, two warriors with their standards,
and an eunuch in chariots and four warriors, amongst whom
was also an eunuch, on horses. The enemy were on foot, and
were discharging their arrows against the pursuers. Eagles
hovered above the victors, and were feeding on the slain.
The wnnged divinity in the circle was again seen above the
king.
These bas-reHefs fimiish interesting illustrations of the
manners and ci\'ilisation of the AssATians. We find the
eunuch represented as commanding in war and engaging
with the enemy in combat, as we have before seen him
ministering to the king at religious ceremonies, or waiting
upon him as his arms-bearer during peace. That eunuchs
rose to the highest rank among the Ass\Tians, and were even
generals over their armies, we learn from the Old Testament,
where the * Rabsaris,* or chief of the eunuchs, is mentioned
as one of the three principal officers of Sennacherib, and as
e
is
.8
.2
234
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
one of the princes of Nebuchadrezzar.* They appear, in-
deed, to have held the same important posts, and to have
exercised the same influence in the Assyrian court, as they
have since enjoyed in Turkey and Persia, where they have
even risen to the rank of vizir or prime minister.
In the bas-reliefs the horses of the archers, who are
fighting with the enemy, and who have consequently both
hands engaged, are represented as led by mounted warriors
who ride by their side. They wear skull-caps, probably of
Mounted Archer drawing the Bow, whilst a Second Horseman guides his Horse
(N. W. Palace, Nimroud.}
iron. Judging from the sculptures, cavalry must have formed
a large and important portion of the Assyrian armies. The
Assyrian horsemen are frequently mentioned in the Bible.
Ezekiel (xxiii. 6) describes ' the Assyrians clothed in blue,
captains and rulers, all of them desirable young men, horse-
men riding upon horses ; ' and Holofemes is declared to
have had no less than 12,000 archers on horseback. The
* 2 Kings, xviii. 1 7 ; Jeremiah, xxxix. 3.
IX.] ASSYRIAN HORSES. 235
rider is represented as seated on the naked back of the horse,
which is only adorned with a cloth when led behind the
chariot of the king.
The horses represented in the sculptures appear to be of
noble breed. Assyria, and particularly that part of the em-
pire which was watered by the Tigris and Euphrates, was
celebrated at a very early period for its horses, as the same
plains are to this day for the noblest breeds of Arabia. The
Jews probably obtained horses for their cavalry from this
country; and horses were offered to them by the general of
the Assyrian king, as an acceptable present* On Eg)^tian
monuments, horses are continually mentioned amongst the
spoil or tribute from Mesopotamia. The horses of the
Assyrian bas-reliefs were evidently drawn from the finest
models, and the Assyrian sculptor has not been altogether un-
successful in their delineation. The head is small and well-
shaped, the nostrils large and high, the neck arched, the body
long, and the legs slender and sinewy. The prophet exclaims
of the horses of the Chaldaeans, ' They are swifter than the
leopards, and more fierce than the evening wolves ; ' f and
the magnificent description of the war-horse in the book of
Job is familiar to every reader. J At a later period the plains
of Babylonia furnished horses to the Persians, both for the
private use of the king and for his troops. The rich pasture-
grounds of Mesopotamia must have always afforded them
ample sustenance, whilst in those vast plains, exposed to the
heats of summer and the cold winds of winter, they were
inured to hardships and fatigue.
The lower series of bas-reUefs contained three subjects —
the siege of a castle, the king receiving prisoners, and the
king, with his army, crossing a river. The first occupied the
under compartments of three slabs. The castle had equi-
distant towers, and apparently several walls, one behind
the other, all surmounted by triangular pointed battlements.
The besiegers having brought a battering-ram to the outer
* * Now, therefore, I pray thee, give pledges to my lord the king of
Assyria, and I will deliver tiiee two thousand horses, if thou be able on
thy part to set riders upon them.' (2 Kings, xviii. 23.)
t Habakkuk, i. 8. ' X Chap, xxxix. 19.
236 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
wall, one of the besieged was endeavouring to catch the ram,
and to break the blows, by a chain lowered from the walls ;
whilst two warriors of the assailing party were seeking to hold
the ram in its place by hooks. This part of the bas-relief
illustrates the account in the book of Chronicles and in
Josephus, of the machines for battering walls, instrumetiis to
cast stones, and grappling irons made by Uzziah.* A warrior
on the castle walls was throwing fire (traces of the red paint
with which the flame was coloured, being still visible in the
sculpture) from above upon the battering-ram ; whilst the
besiegers endeavoured to quench the flames, by pouring
water upon them from the moveable tower. Two soldiers,
in full armour, were undermining the walls with instruments
like blunt spears ; whilst two others appear to have found a
secret passage into the castle. Wounded men were falling
from the battlements ; and upon one of the towers were
women, tearing their hair and extending their hands to ask
for quarter. The enemy were mounting to the assault, by
scaling ladders placed against the walls. The king, dis-
charging an arrow, and protected by a shield held by a
warrior in complete armour, stood on one side of the castle.
He was attended by two eunuchs, one holding an open
umbrella over his head, the other his quiver and mace. Be-
hind them was an Assyrian warrior driving away three women,
a child, and three bullocks, forming part of the spoiL It
was thus that the Assyrians carried away captive the people
of Samaria, replacing the population of the conquered country
by colonies of their own.f The women were represented
as tearing their hair and throwing dust upon their heads, the
usual signs of grief in the East
On the other side of the castle were two kneeling soldiers,
one using his bow, the other holding a shield for liis com-
panion's defence. Behind them was the vizir, also discharging
an arrow, and protected by the shield of a second warrior,
an ardier kneehng, and an archer and his shield-bearer in
complete armour, standing. They were followed by a chariot,
in which a charioteer was standing, whilst the horses were
* 2 Chron. xxvi. 15, and Josephus, lib. ix. c. 10.
+ 2 Kings, xvii. 6.
JX.] THE KING RECEIVING CAPTIVES. 237
held by a groom. Behind the chariot were two warriors,
each carrying a bow and a mace. The shields represented
in this bas-relief were probably made of wicker-work, and
were chiefly used during a siege. They were large enough to
cover the whole person of the archer, who was thus able to
discharge his arrows in comparative security. Such may
have been the bucklers which Herodotus describes as form-
ing a complete fence before the Persian archers at the battle
of Platea.*
The three following bas-reliefs represented the king re-
ceiving captives, apparently of the same nation as those
portrayed in another part of the hall, and already described.
Behind the chariot of the king were two other chariots, each
containing a charioteer, passing under the walls of a castle,
on which were women, apparently viewing the procession.
In these bas-reliefs the harness and trappings of the horses
and chariots are remarkable for their richness and even
elegance. The heads of the horses are adorned with plumes
and fanciful crests, and with long ribands or streamers, which
were probably of many colours. Like the Arabs and Per-
sians of the present day, the Assyrians appear to have been
lavish of tassels of silk and wool, which were attached to all
parts of the harness, as were also small bells and ornaments
in ivory, many of which were afterwards found in the ruins.
The bridle consisted of a headstall, a strap divided into
three parts joining the bit, and straps over the forehead,
under the cheeks, and behind the ears. We find sacred em-
blems used as ornaments in the trappings of horses, as on
the robes of figures ; the winged bull, the sun, moon, stars,
and horned cap being frequently introduced. They were
probably of ivory, gold, and copper, or sometimes worked on
cloth or silk.
Three richly embroidered straps, passing round the body
of the horse, kept the harness and chariot-pole in their
places, and were attached to a highly decorated breast-band.
To the yoke was suspended an elegant ornament, in the form
of the head of an animal, and a ring which generally enclosed
a winged bull, a star, or some other sacred device.
* Lib. ix. c. 61.
238 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
Embroidered trappings, such as are described by Ezekiel*
as the precious clothes' for chariots^ coming from Dedan, covered
the backs of the horses. Their bits, as well as the metal
used in the harness, may frequently have been of gold and
other precious materials, like those of the ancient Persians.f
Their manes were either allowed to fall loosely on the neck
or were plaited, and their tails were tied in the middle with
ribands adorned with tassels.
In the Bible frequent mention is made of the use of
chariots and horsemen both in sieges and battles, as repre-
sented in the Assyrian sculptures. 'The choicest valleys
shall be full of chariots, and the horsemen shall set themselves
in array against the gate'X Amongst the tributaries of the
Assyrians, the Elamites were celebrated for their charioU
carrying archers. % The Jewish kings appear to have granted
certain privileges to cities equipping chariots, hence called
* chariot cities,' which in the time of Solomon supplied no
less than one thousand four hundred chariots and twelve
thousand horsemen. || It is probable that these chariots
were similar in form to those represented in the Assyrian
sculptures. Chariots of iron were used in Palestine from
the earliest period, and before the Jewish occupation of the
country. They appear to have been so formidable in war,
that the Israelites were long unable to contend against them.lj"
The three remaming bas-reliefs, representing the passage of
a river, were highly interesting and curious. In the first was a
boat containing a chariot, in which stood the king. In one
hand he held two arrows, in the other a bow. An eunuch,
standing in front of the chariot, appeared to point to some
object in the distance, perhaps the strongholdJbf the enemy.
Behind the chariot was a second eunuch, holdmg a bow and
mace. The boat was towed by two naked men ; foyr men
sat at the oars, and another rowed and steered with an oar
with a broad fiat end, attached to a thick wooden jSin at the
stern. This is precisely the kind of vessel used by the
* Chap, xxvii. 20.
+ I Esdras, iii. 6 ; Xenophon, Cyrop. lib. i. c. 3.
X Isaiah, xxii. 7. § Isaiah, xxii. 6.
11 2 Chron. i. 14 ; Isaiah, xxii. If Judges, i. 19, and iv. 3.
IX.] BOAT CARRYING A CHARIOT. 239
natives of Mosul to this day for crossing the Tigris ; and
such probably were the Babylonian boats described by
Herodotus, constructed of willow-boughs and covered with
skins. A man, standing in the vessel, held the halters of
four horses, which were swimming over the stream. In the
water was a naked man supporting himself on an inflated
skin, and paddling with his hands. This bas-relief, with the
exception of the king and the chariot, might represent a
scene daily witnessed, even now, on the banks of the Tigris,
—probably the river here represented. On the next slab
were two smaller boats ; one carrying the couch of the king
and a jar or large vessel ; the other an empty chariot : they
were impelled by two rowers, seated face to face. Five men,
two leading horses by their halters, were swimming, supported
e^^^rT
■rf..-^^^^'.
ap^sF^" -^^-^s
A Boat carrying a Chariot, and Men swimming on inflated Skins
(N. W. Palace, Nimroud.)
on inflated skins. On the third slab was represented men
embarking chariots and preparing to cross the river. Their
proceedings were superintended by officers, one of whom, an
eunuch, held a whip, which was probably used — as in the
army of Xerxes — to keep the soldiers to their duty, and pre-
vent them flying from the enemy.*
On the opposite side of the hall, between the entrances,
only one slab was discovered in its original position. The
upper compartment was almost completely defaced ; in the
* Herod, lib. vii. ch. 56, in which Xerxes is described as seeing his
troops driven by blows over the bridge across the Hellespont ; it was
also the custom for the officers to carry whips to drive the soldiers to
battle (lib. vii. ch. 223).
240
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
lower was represented a battle between Assyrian warriors,
in chariots, and the cavalry of the enemy. The conquered
people wore high boots, turned up at the toes, and conical
caps, probably of felt or linen. One of the mounted archers
turned back, whilst his horse was at full speed, to discharge
an arrow against his pursuers. This mode of fighting is de-
nying Warrior turning back to discharge an Arrow. (N. W. Palace, Nimroud.)
scribed by ancient authors as peculiar to the Parthian and
Persian tribes, and is still practised by the irregular cavalry
of Persia.*
* Anab. lib. iii. ch. 3.
* Fidentemque fugsl Parthum, versisque sagittis. *
and Hor. Carm. lib. i. ode xix. Virg. Georg. 3.
IX.] RELICS OF ARMOUR, 241
The Arabs employed in removing the rubbish from the
chamber Avith the kneeling winged figures,* discovered a
quantity of objects in iron, in which I soon recognised the
scales of the armour represented in the sculptures. These
scales were from two to three inches in length, rounded at
one end, and square at the other, with a raised or embossed
line in the centre, an,d had probably been fastened to a shirt
of linen or felt. The iron was so eaten by rust, that I had
much difficulty in detaching it from the soil. Two or three
baskets were filled with these relics, which must have be-
longed to several suits of armour.
As more earth was removed, other portions of armour were
found. At length a perfect helmet of iron inlaid with copper
bands, resembling in shape and in the ornaments the pointed
helmet represented in the bas-reliefs, was discovered.
Several helmets of other shapes, some with arched crests,
were also dug out; but they fell to pieces almost as soon
as exposed to the air ; and I was only able to collect a few
of the fragments. This armour had probably belonged to
Assyrian warriors who had fallen in defence of the palace I
was exploring, when Nineveh was captured for the last time
and destroyed never to rise again. f
Several slabs in this chamber had fallen from their places,
and were broken. Beneath them were the. fragments of
Inscription on Fragment of Pottery from Nimroud.
several alabaster vases and. vessels of baked clay. Upon bits
of pottery were painted characters resembling the rounded
letters of Babylonia and Phoenicia, probably a cursive writing
in common use in Assyria, like the demotic character in
Egypt ; whilst the cuneiform, like the hieroglyphic, was prin-
* Chamber I, Plan II. p. 42.
t Such remains of the armour and helmets as could be preserved are
now in the British Museum.
R
242.
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
cipally reserved for monumental inscriptions. The earthen
vases were of a light yellcw colour, with bars, zig-zag lines,
and simple designs in black rudely painted upon them.
Whilst I was collecting and examining these curious relics,
a .workman found a perfect vase ; but, unfortunately^ broke
the upper part by striking it with his pick. I took the in-
strument, and, working cautiously myself, was rewarded by
the discovery of two perfect vases, one in alabaster, the other
in glass. On each were engraved the name and title, written
in cuneifomi characters, of Sargon, the king who built the
Khorsabad palace, and the figure of a lion. They may have
Glass and Alabaster Vases bearing the name of Sargon. (From Nimroud.)
been used to hold some ointment or cosmetic The glass
vase is the most ancient specimen of transparent glass with
which we are acquainted, the inscription upon it enabling us
to fix its date, about 720 b.c. No Egyptian glass of the same
kind is believed to be older than the time of the Psamettici,
or the end of the sixth or beginning of the fifth century b.c
Opaque coloured glass was, however, manufactured at a much
earlier period, some existing specimens being referred to the
15 th century b.c The Sargon vase was bjown in one solid
IX.] A GENEALOGICAL BRICK, 243
piece, and then shaped and hollowed out by a turning ma-
chine, of which the marks are still visible. A kind of exfoli-
ation had taken place on its surface, which was incrusted
with thin, semi-transparent lamina, glowing with the brilliant
colours of the opal. This beautiful appearance is a well-
known result of age, and is found on glass from Egyptian,
Greek, and other early tombs. Both the glass and alabaster
vases are now in the British Museum.*
In the lower compartment of a slab in the same chamber
were two beardless figures, which, from a certain feminine
character in the features, and from a cluster of long curls
falling down their backs, appeared to be women. They wore
the usual homed cap and had wings. They faced one an-
other, and between them was the sacred tree. In one hand
they held a garland or chaplet; and wore round their necks
a necklace, with seven stars.f
The adjoining chamber was panelled with unsculptured
slabs, and contained no object of particular interest
About this time a most remarkable discovery was made in
the centre of the mound, where, as I have already mentioned, J
a pair of gigantic winged bulls appeared to form the entrance
to a building. The inscriptions upon them contained a royal
name, diflfering from that of the king of the N.W. palace. On
digging further I found a brick, on which was a genealogy,
the new name occurring first, as that of the son of Sardana-
palus, the founder of the earlier edifice. §
I dug round these sculptures, expecting to find the re-
mains of walls, but there were no other traces of building.
As the backs of the slabs were completely covered with in-
scriptions, in large and well-formed characters, it was possible
that these bulls might originally have stood alone. Suspect-
ing that there must have been other sculptures near them, I
* The glass vase is 3J inches high ; the alabaster vase 7 inches,
t This bas-relief is in the British Museum.
t Pp- 32, 33-
§ The name of this king, according to Sir Henry Rawlinson, is
* Shalman-ussur ' (Shalamanezar) ; according to Dr. Hincks, *Divanu-
Bara ; ' according to M. Oppert, * Salman- Asir. ' A similar royal name
occurs in earlier inscriptions, and this king is believed to be the second,
or even the third, who bore it.
R 2
244
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS.
[Chap.
directed a deep trench to be opened, at right angles, behind
the northern bull. After digging to the distance of about
ten feet, the workmen came upon a colossal winged deity
or priest in low relief, lying flat on the brick pavement
Beyond was a similar figure, still more gigantic in its propor-
The Obelisk in Black Marble, discovered at Nimroud.
tions, being about fourteen feet high. The beard and part
of the legs of a winged bull, in yellow limestone, were next
found The trench was carried in the same direction to the
distance of fifty feet, but without any other discoveries being
made. I had business in Mosul, and was giving directions
to the workmen to guide them during my absence. StanH-
IX.]
SCULPTURES ON THE OBELISK.
245
ing on the edge of the hitherto unprofitable trench, I doubted
whether I should carry it any further; but made up my mind
at last not to abandon it until my return, which would be on
the following day. I mounted my horse, but had scarcely
left the mound when the comer of an object in black marble
was uncovered, ten feet below the surface.
An Arab was sent after me without delay, to announce the
discovery; and on my return I found, completely exposed
to view, and lying on its side, an obelisk, about six feet six
inches in height, terminated by three steps or gradines and
flat at the top. I descended eagerly into the trench, and
was immediately struck by the singular appearance, and evi-
dent antiquity, of the remarkable monument before me. We
raised it and speedily dragged it out of the ruins. On each
of the four faces were five small bas-reHefs, and above, below,
and between them was carved an inscription 210 lines in
Elephant and Monkeys. (Obelisk, NimrouA)
length, the whole in the most perfect preservation. The king
was twice represented followed by his attendants ; a prisoner
crouched at his feet, and his vizir and eunuchs were bringing
before him captives and tributaries carrying bars of gold and
silver, and other metals, vases, shawls, bundles of rare wood,
elephant's tusks, and other objects of tribute, and leading
various animals, such as the elephant, rhinoceros, Bactrian
or two-humped camel, antelope, horse, wild bull, and several
kinds of monkeys. In one bas-relief were two lions hunting
a stag in a wood, probably to denote the nature of one of
246
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
the countries conquered by the king. From the animals
portrayed, particularly the double-humped camel*, and the
Bactrian or Two-humped Camels. (Obelisk, Nimroud.)
elephant, which, from the size of the ear and other distinc-
tive characteristics, is evidently of the Indian and not of the
The Bull, the Rhinoceros, and an Antelope. (Obelisk, Nimroud. )
African species, the obelisk appears to commemorate the
conquest of nations far to the east of Assyria, extending to
the Indian peninsula. The king, whose deeds it records,
* This animal is a native of the great steppes inhabited by the Tatar
tribes. It is almost unknown to the Arabs, and is rarely seen to the
west of Persia, except amongst a few isolated families of Turcomans, who
now pitch their tents in the north of Syria, and probably brought this
camel with them on their first migration.
IX.]- SCULPTURES ON THE OBELISK, 247
raised the centre palace at Nimroud, and his name is found
on the great human -headed bulls which I had previously*
Baboon and Ape. (Obelisk, Nimroud.)
discovered amidst its ruins. He is believed to have been
called Shalmaneser, but he must not be confounded with
the Assyrian king of the same name mentioned in the Book
of Kings, who led away into captivity the people of Samaria,
and reigned about one hundred years later.
It would appear that the inscription on the obelisk re-
cords, in brief and terse phraseology, the annals of thirty-
two years of his reign, and twenty-five successful campaigns
against the nations and tribes bordering on the Assyrian
empire, including the Babylonians, Chaldaeans, Armenians,
Hittites, and the people of Damascus, and other parts of
Syria ; and the monarch claims to have received tribute from
the cities of Tyre and Sidon, and from the Israelites.
Amongst the royal names belonging to this period, which are
familiar to us from their mention in the Bible, two are found
in the inscription — that of Hazael, king of Syria, and of
Jehu, king of Samaria, who^ is called the son, probably mean-
ing the descendant, of Omri. The city of Samaria is termed,
after a common Eastern figure of speech, * Beth Omri,' the
house of Omri, after its founder.* Jehu is declared to have
* In another inscription, similar in other respects to a part of the
inscription on the obelisk, we have the name of Samaria instead of Beth
Omfi ; thus affording a striking corroboration of the general accuracy of
the interpretation of the cuneiform character.
248
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. CHAP.
sent tribute consisting principally of gold and silver in bars,
and vessels in the precious metals, ta Shalmanezer, and two
of the bas-reliefs on the obelisk are believed to represent the
Captive, supposed to be a Jewish Chief, beiore Assyrian Ring.
chief ambassador of Jehu prostrating himself before the
Assyrian king, and Israelites bearing the various objects of
tribute sent by him to Nineveh.'*^
Captives, supposed to be Jews, bearing Tribute.
But the identification appears to me very questionable.
T doubt whether this peculiar head-dress — the pointed cap
* Rawlinson's * Ancient Monarchies,' vol. ii. p-365.
IX.]
DISCOVERIES IN S. W. CORNER.
249
turned back at the top, and the boots with the toes turned
up — were worn by the Israelites. It belonged more probably
to some race living to the north of Assyria.* The turban,
or a fillet round the temples, seems to have been more cha-
racteristic of the inhabitants of southern Syria.
In the S.W. comer, discoveries of scarcely less interest and
importance were made almost at the same time. The southern
entrance to the palace was formed by a pair of winged
human-headed lions, of which the upper parts, including the
heads, had been almost entirely destroyed. They differed in
many respects from those in the N.W. palace. They had
four legs instead of five ; the material in which they were
sculptured was a coarse limestone, and not alabaster; and
Figures on Lions. (S. W. Palace, Nimroud.)
behind the body of the lion, and in front above its wings,
upon the same slab, were several figures, which were unfor-
tunately greatly injured, and could with difficulty be traced.
The figures behind were a kind of dragon with the head of
* Captives- or tributaries bringing monkeys were represented in this
dress on a slab in the north-west palace (see p. 88).
250
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
an eagle and the claws of a bird, followed by a man carrying
the usual square vessel, standing above a human figure, the
upper part of which was destroyed in all the sculptures \
and a priest bearing a pole surmounted by a fir cone.
Those in front were a human figure, and a monster with the
head of a Hon, the body of a man, and the feet of a bird,
raising a sword.
Figures on Lions. (S. W. Palace, Nimroud.)
Between the two human-headed lions, forming this en-
trance, were a pair of crouching sphinxes, not in relief, but
entire. The human head was beardless ; and the homed cap
square, and highly ornamented at the top, like that of the
winged bulls of Khorsabad. The body was that of a winged
lion. These sphinxes may have been altars for sacrifice or
offerings, or they may have been the bases of wooden columns.
The whole entrance was buried in charcoal, and had
evidently been destroyed by fire. One of the sphinxes had
been nearly reduced to lime; but the other, although cracked
into a thousand pieces, was still standing when uncovered.
IX.}
DISCOVERIES INS. W,. CORNER,
251
I endeavoured to secure it with rods of iron and wooden
planks ; but the alabaster was too much calcined to resist
exposure to the atmosphere. I had scarcely time to make a
drawing of it before the whole fell into fragments, too small
to admit of their being collected with a view to future resto-
ration. The sphinxes, when entire, were about five feet in
height, and the same in length.
Sphinx from S. W. Palace. (Nimroud.)
Buried in the charcoal was found a small head in ala-
baster, with the high homed cap, precisely similar to that
of the large sphinxes ; and subsequently the body was dug
out, giving thus a complete model of the larger sculptures.*
In the same place I discovered the figures of two hons,
united and forniing a kind of pedestal, like the crouching
sphinx ; but the human heads were wanting, and the rest
of the sculpture had been so much injured by fire, that I
was unable to preserve it.
The plan of the edifice in which these discoveries were
made could not yet be determined. All the slabs uncovered
had evidently been brought from another building ; chiefly
from the N. W. palace. The entrance I have just described
* Now in the British Museum.
252 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
proved this beyond a doubt, as it enabled me to distin-
guish between the back and front of the walls. I was now
convinced that the sculptures hitherto found had not been
exposed to view in the ancient building ; but had been
placed against the wall of sun-dried bricks ; the backs of the
slabs, smoothed preparatory to being sculptured, having
been turned towards the interior of the chambers. This
showed that the materials used in the palace L was ex-
ploring had been employed in ornamenting another edifice.
There were no inscriptions between the legs of the lions
just described, as in other buildings at Nimroud and Khorsa-
bad. I had not before found sculptures unaccompanied by
the name and genealogy of the founder of the edifice in
which they had been placed. When no inscription was on
the face, it was invariably on the back of the slab. I dug,
therefore, at the back of the lions, and was not disappointed
in my search ; a few lines in the cuneiform character were
discovered, containing the names of three kings in genea-
logical series. The name of the first king nearly resembled
that of the builder of the N. W. palace, or Sardanapalus ;
that of his father was identical with the name on the bricks
found in the ruins opposite Mosul; and that of his grand-
father with the name of the founder of Khorsabad. These
royal names are well-known to be those of Sargon, Senna-
cherib, and Esar-haddon, who was consequently the founder
of the south-west palace at Nimroud.*
Whilst excavations were thus successfully carried on
amongst the centre ruins, and those of the two palaces
first uncovered, discoveries of a difierent nature were made
in the S. E. comer, which was much higher than any other
part of the mound. I dug to a considerable depth, without
meeting with any other remains than fragments of inscribed
bricks and pottery, and a few entire earthen vessels. At
length part of a slab bearing a royal name similar to that on
the bull in the centre of the mound, was found at some
depth beneath the surface. On raising it to copy the
inscription, I found that it had been used as a lid to an
* The Assyrian form of Esar-haddon appears to be Asshur-akh-iddina,
or Assur-akh-iddin.
IX.]
DISCOVERY OF TOMBS,
253
earthen sarcophagus, which, with its contents, was still en-
tire beneath. The sarcophagus was about five feet in length,
and very narrow. The skeleton was well preserved, but
fell to pieces almost immediately when exposed to the
air ; by its sides, were two jars in baked clay of a red colour,
Nestorian and Arab Workmen, with Jar discovered at Nimroud,
and a small alabaster bottle, such as were used by the
ancients to hold ointments. There was no clue to the date
of the sepulchre, but there is reason to believe that it be-
longed to a period much more recent than the Assyrian ;
254 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
probably to the time of the Roman occupation, when the
ruins of Nineveh had long been buried. Many similar tombs
were subsequently discovered in the Assyrian mounds and
above Assyrian ruins.
The sarcophagus was too small to contain a man of
ordinary size if stretched at full length ; and it was evident,
from the position of the skeleton, that the body had been
doubled up. A second earthen case was soon found, re-
sembling a dish-cover in shape, and scarcely four feet long.
In it were also vases of baked clay, and it was closed by
an inscribed slab like the sarcophagus first discovered.
Although the skulls were entire when first exposed to view,
they crumbled into dust as soon as an attempt was made to
move tljem.
The six weeks following the commencement of ex-
cavations upon a large scale were amongst the most pros-
perous, and fruitful in results, during my researches in
Assyria. Every day produced some new discovery. The
Arabs entered with zeal into the work, and felt almost
as much interested in it as I did myself. They were
now •well organised, and I had no difficulty in managing
them. Even their private disputes and domestic quarrels
were referred to me. They found this a cheaper fashion
of settling their difierences than litigation ; and I have
reason to hope that they received an ampler measure of
justice than they could have expected at the hands of his
reverence the Cadi. The l^nts had greatly increased in
numbers, as the relatives of those who were engaged in
the excavations came to Nimroud and swelled the encamp-
ment ; for although they received no pay, they managed to
live upon the gains of their friends. They were, more-
over, preparing to glean, — in the event of there being
any crops in the spring, — and to take possession of little
strips of land along the banks of the river, for the cultivation
of millet during the summer. They already began to make
water-courses, and machines for irrigation, The mode of
raising water in Mesopotamia is very simple. In the first
place a high bank, which is never completely deserted by
the river, is chosen, and a broad recess is cut in it down
IX.] ARAB MODE OF IRRIGATION,. 255
to the water's edge. Over this recess are fixed three or four
upright poles, according to the number of oxen to be em-
ployed, united at the top by rollers turning on a swivel, and
supporting a large framework of boughs and grass, which
extends to some distance behind, and is intended as a
shelter from the sun. Over each roller are passed two
ropes, one fastened to the mouth, and the other to the op-
posite end, of. a leather sack, formed out of an entire bullock
skin. These ropes are attached to oxen, who throw all their
weight upon them by descending an inclined plane. A
trough formed of wood, and lined with bitumen, or a shallow
trench coated with matting, is constructed at the bottom
of the poles to receive the water, and leads to a channel
running into the fields. When the skin is drawn up to the
roller, the ox turns round at the bottom of the inclined
plane. The rope attached to the lower part of the bucket
being fastened to the back part of the animal, he raises,
in turning, the bottom of the skin, and the contents are
poured into the trough. As the ox ascends, the bucket falls
again, by its own weight, into the stream. Although this
mode of irrigation is very toilsome, and requires the con-
stant labour of men and animals, it is generally adopted
on the banks of the Tigris and Euphrates. In this way
all the gardens of Baghdad and Busrah are watered ; and
by such means the wandering Arabs, who condescend to
cultivate the soil near the rivers' — when famine is staring
them in the face — raise a little millet to supply their imme-
diate wants.
The principal public quarrels, over which my jurisdiction
extended, related to property abstracted, by the Arabs,
from one another's tents. This I disposed of in a summary
manner, as I had provided myself with handcuffs; and
Ibrahim Agha and the feairakdar were always ready to
act with energy and decision, to show how much they
were devoted to my service. But the domestic dissen-
sions were of a more serious nature, and their adjustment
ofiered far greater difficulties. They related, of course,
always to the women. As soon as a workman saved a few
piastres, his thoughts were turned to the purchase of a
256 • NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
new wife, a striped cloak, and a spear. To accomplish this,
his ingenuity was taxed to the utmost extent The old wife
naturally enough raised objections, and picked a quarrel
with the intended bride, which generally ended in an appeal
to physical force. Then the fathers and brothers were
dragged into the affair; from them it extended to the various
branches of the tribe, always anxious to fight for their own
honour, and for the honour of their women. At other times,
a man repented himself of his bargain, and refused to marry
the woman to whom he had engaged himself; or a father,
finding his future son-in-law increasing in wealth, demanded
a higher price for his daughter — a breach of faith which
would naturally lead to violent measures on the part of the
disappointed lover. Then a workman, who had returned
hungry from his work, and found his bread unbaked, or the
water-skin still lying empty at the entrance of his tent, or
the bundle of faggots for his evening fire yet ungathered,
would, in a moment of passion, pronounce three times the
awful sentence, and divorce his wife;* or, avoiding such
extremities, would content himself with inflicting summary
punishment with a tent-pole. In the first case he probably
repented himself of the act an hour or two afterwards, and
wished to be remarried ; or endeavoured to prove that, being
an ignorant man, he had mis-pronounced the formula, or
omitted some words — both being good grounds to invaUdate
the divorce, and to obviate the necessity of any fresh cere-
monies. But the mullah had to be summoned, witnesses
called, and evidence produced. The beating was generally
the most expeditious, and really, to the wife, the most satis-
factory way of adjusting the quarrel. I had almost nightly
to settle such questions as these. Mr. Hormuzd Rassam, who
had obtained an immense influence over the Arabs, and
was known amongst all the tribes, was directed to ascertain
the merits of the story, and to collect the evidence. When
this process had been completed, I summoned the elders
and gave judgment in their presence. The culprit was
* According to the Mohammedan law, if a man pronounce three
times the words, * I divorce thee,' the marriage bond is dissolved.
IX.] ARAB WOMEN, 257
punished summarily, or, in case of a disputed bargain,
was made to pay more, or to refund, as the case required.
When I first employed the Arabs, the women were
sorely ill-treated, and subjected to great hardships. I en-
deavoured to introduce some reform into their domestic
arrangements, and punished severely those who inflicted
corporal chastisement on their wives. In a short time
the number of domestic quarrels was greatly reduced ;
and the women, who were at first afraid to complain of
their husbands, now boldly appealed to me for protection,
'they had, however, some misgivings as to the fiiture, which
were thus expressed by a deputation sent to return thanks
after an entertainment : — ' O Bey ! we are your sacrifice.
May God reward you ! Have we not eaten wheaten bread,
and even meat and butter, since we have been under
your shadow] Is there one of us that has not now a
coloured kerchief for her head, bracelets, and ankle-rings,
and a striped cloak? But what shall we do when you
leave us, which God forbid you ever should dol Our
husbands will then have their turn, and there will be no-
body to help us.'
These poor creatures, like all Arab women, were exposed
to constant hardships. They were obliged to look after the
children, to make the bread, to fetch water, and to cut wood,
which they brought home from afar on their heads. More-
over they were entrusted with all the domestic duties, wove
their wool and goats' hair into clothes, carpets, and tent-
canvass ; and were left to strike and raise the tents,, and to
load and unload the beasts of burden when they changed
their encamping ground. If their husbands possessed sheep
or cows, they had to drive them to the pastures, and to milk
thfem at night. When moving, they carried their children at
their backs during tlie march, and were even troubled with
this burden when employed in their domestic occupations, if
the children were too young to be left alone. The men sat
indolently by, smoking their pipes, or listening to the gossip
of some stray Arab of the desert. At first the women, whose
husbands encamped on the mound, brought water from the
river ; but I relieved them from this labour by emplopng
s
258 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
horses and donkeys. The weight of a large sheep or goafs
skin filled with water, is not inconsiderable. It is hung on
the back by cords strapped over the shoulders, and upon it
is frequently seated the child, who cannot be left in the tent,
or is unable to follow its mother on foot The bundles of
fire-wood, brought from a considerable distance, were enor-
mous, completely concealing the head and shoulders of those
who tottered beneath them. And yet the women worked
cheerfully, and it was seldom that their husbands had to com-
plain of their idleness. Some were more active than others.
There was a young girl named Hadla, who particularly dis-
tinguished herself, and was consequently sought in marriage
by all the men. Her features were handsome, and her forin
erect, and exceedingly graceful. She carried the largest bur-
dens, was never unemployed, and was accustomed, when she
had finished the work imposed upon her by her mother, to
assist her neighbours in completing theirs.
The dinners or breakfasts (for the meal comprised both)
of the Arab workmen were brought to them at the mound,
about eleven o'clock, by the children. Few had more than
a loaf of millet bread, or millet made into a kind of paste, to
satisfy their hunger : wheaten bread was a luxury. Some-
times their wives had found time to gather a few herbs, which
were boiled in water with a little salt, and sent to them in
wooden bowls; and in spring, curds and sour milk occa-
sionally accompanied their bread. The little children, who
carried their father's or brother's portion, came merrily along,
and sat smiling on the edge of the trenches, or stood gazing
in wonder at the sculptures, until they were sent back with
the empty platters and bowls. The working parties eat
together in the trenches in which they had been employed.
A little water, drank out of a large jar, was their only beverage.
Yet they were happy and joyous. The joke went round ; or,
during the short time they had to rest, one told a story, which,
if not concluded at a sitting,'was resumed on the following
day. I have frequently heard the Arabian Nights' tales told
in this manner. Sometimes a pedlar from Mosul, driving
before him his donkey, laden with raisins or dried dates,
would appear on the mound. Buying up his store, I would
IX.] LIFE A T NIMRO UD, 259
distribute it amongst the men. This largess created an im-
mense deal of satisfaction and enthusiasm, which any one,
not acquainted with the character of the Arab, might have
thought almost more than equivalent to the consideration.
The Arabs are naturally hospitable and generous. If one
of the workmen was wealthy enough to buy a handful of
raisins, or a piece of camel's or sheep's flesh, or if he had a
cow, which occasionally yielded him butter or sour milk, he
would immediately call his friends together to partake of his
feast I was frequently invited to such entertainments ; the
whole dinner, perhaps, consisting of a dozen dates or raisins
spread out wide, to make the best show, upon a corn-sack ;
a pat of butter upon a comer of a flat loaf; and a few cakes
of dough baked in the ashes. And yet the repast was ushered
in with every solemnity ; — the host turned his dirty keffieh,
or head-kerchief, and his cloak, in order to look clean and
smart; appearing both proud of the honour conferred upon
him, and of his means to meet it in a proper fashion.
I frequently feasted the workmen, and sometimes their
wives and daughters were invited to separate entertainments,
as they would not eat in public with the men. Generally of
an evening, after the labours of the day were finished, some
Kurdish musicians would stroll to the village with their in-
struments, and a dance would be commenced, which lasted
through the greater part of the night. Sheikh Abd-ur-rahman,
or some Sheikh of a neighbouring tribe, occasionally joined
us ; or an Arab from the Khabour, or from the more distant
tribes of the desert, would pass through Nimroud, and enter-
tain a large circle of curious and excited listeners with stories
of recent fights, plundering expeditions, or the murder of a
chief. I endeavoured, as far as it was in my power, to create
a good feeling amongst all, and to obtain their willing co-
operation in my work. I believe that I was to some extent
successful
The Nestorian diggers resided chiefly on the mound, where
I had built a large hut for them. A few only returned at
night to the village. Many of them had brought their wives
from the mountains. The women made bread, and cooked
26o NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
for all. Two of the men walked to the village of Tel Yakoub,
or to Mosul, on Saturday evening, to fetch flour for the whole
party, and returned before the work of the day began on
Monday morning ; for they would not journey on the Sab-
bath. They kept their holidays and festivals with as much
rigour as they kept the Sunday. On these days they assem-
bled on the mound or in the trenches ; and one of the priests
or deacons (for there were several amongst the workmen)
repeated prayers, or led a hymn or chant I often watched
these poor creatures, as they reverentially knelt — their heads
uncovered — under the great bulls, celebrating the praises of
Him whose temples the worshippers of those frowning idols
had destroyed, — whose power they had mocked. It was the
triumph of truth over paganism. Never had that triumph
been more forcibly illustrated than by those who now bowed
down in the crumbling halls of the Assyrian kings.
I experienced some difficulty in settling disputes between
the Arabs and the Nestorians, which frequentiy threatened to
finish in bloodshed. The Mussulmans were always ready, on
the slightest provocation, to bestow upon the Chaldaeans the
abuse usually reserved in the East for Christians. But the
hardy mountaineers took these things differently from the
humlDle Rayahs of the plain, and retorted with epithets very-
harsh to a Mohammedan's ear. This, of course, led to the
drawing of sabres and priming of matchlocks ; and it was not
until I had inflicted a few summary punishments, that some
check was placed upon these disorders.
On Sunday, sheep were slain for the Nestorian workmen,
and they feasted during the afternoon. When at night there
were music and dances, they would sometimes join the Arabs;
but generally performed a quiet dance with their own women,
with more decorum, and less vehemence, than their more
excitable companions.
As for mysdf I rose at day-break, and, after a hasty break-
fast, rode to the mound. Until night I was engaged in
drawing the sculptures, copying and taking casts of the in-
scriptions, and superintending the excavations, and the re-
moval and packing of the bas-reliefs. On my return to the
village, I was occupied till past midnight in comparing the
IX.] A RAFT PLUNDERED. 261
inscriptions I had copied with the paper impressions, in
finishing drawings, and in preparing for the work of the fol-
lowing day. Such was our manner of life during the exca-
vations at Nimroud ; and I owe an apology to the reader for
entering into such details. They may, however, be interest-
ing, as illustrative of the character of the genuine Arab, with
whom the traveller is seldom brought so much into contact
as I have been.
Early in December a sufficient number of bas-reliefs were
collected to load another raft, and I consequently rode into
Mosul to make preparations for sending a second cargo to
Baghdad. I had soon procured all that was necessary for
the purpose ; and loading a small raft with spars and skins
for the construction of a larger raft, and with mats and felts
for packing the sculptures, I returned to Nimroud.
The raft-men having left Mosul late in the day, and not
reaching the Awai until after nightfall, were afraid to cross
^ the dam in the dark ; they therefore tied the raft to the shore,
and went to sleep. They were attacked during the night,
and plundered. I appealed to the Turkish authorities, but
in vain. The Arabs of the desert, they said, were beyond
their reach. If this robbery passed unnoticed, the remainder
of my property, and even my person, might run some risk.
Besides, I did not relish the reflection, that the mats and
felts destined for my sculptures were now furnishing the tents
of some Arab Sheikh. Three or four days elapsed before I
ascertained who were the robbers. They belonged to a small
tribe encamping at some distance from Nimroud — notorious
in the country for their thieving propensities, and the dread
of my Jebours, whose cattle were continually disappearing
in a very mysterious fashion. Having learnt the position of
their tents, I started off one morning at dawn, accompanied
by Ibrahim Agha, the Bairakdar, and a horseman, who was
in my service. We reached the encampment after a long
ride, and found the number of the Arabs to be greater than
I had expected. The arrival of strangers drew together a
crowd, which gathered round the tent of the Sheikh, where I
seated myself. A slight bustle was apparent in the part of
it reserved for the women. I soon perceived that attempts
262 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
were being made to hide various ropes and felts, the ends of
which, protruding from under the canvass, I had little diffi-
culty in recognising. * Peace be with you !* said I, address-
ing the Sheikh, who showed by his countenance that he was
not altogether ignorant of the object of my visit * Your
health and spirits are, please God, good. We have long been
friends, although it has never yet been my good fortune to
see you. I know the laws of friendship ; that which is my
property is your property, and the contrary. But there are a
few things, such as mats, felts, and ropes, which come from
afar, and are very necessary to me, whilst they can be of little
use to you ; otherwise God forbid that I should ask for them.
You will greatly oblige me by giving these things to me.'
* As I am your sacrifice, O Bey,' answered he, * no such things
as mats, felts, or ropes were ever in my tents (I observed a
new rope supporting the principal pole). Search, and if such
things be found, we give them to you willingly.' * Wallah !
the Sheikh has spoken the truth,' exclaimed all the bystanders.
* That is exactly what I w^ant to ascertain ; and as this is a
matter of doubt, the Pasha must decide between us,' replied
•I, making a sign to the Bairakdar, who had been duly in-
structed how to act. In a moment he had handcuffed the
Sheikh, and, jumping on his horse, dragged the Arab, at an
uncomfortable pace, out of the encampment. *Now, my
sons,' said I, mounting leisurely, * I have found a part of that
which I wanted; you must search for the rest'. They looked
at one another in amazement One man, more bold than
the rest, was about to seize the bridle of my horse ; but the
weight of Ibrahim Agha's courbatch across his back, drew
his attention to another object Although the Arabs were well
armed, they were too much surprised to make any attempt at
resistance ; or perhaps they feared too much for their Sheikh,
still jolting away at an uneasy pace in the iron grasp of the
Bairakdar, who had put his horse to a brisk trot, and held his
pistol cocked in one hand. The women, swarming out of
the tents, now took part in the matter. Gathering round my
horse, they kissed the tails of my coat and my shoes, making
the most dolorous supplications. , I was not to be moved,
however ; and extricating myself with difficulty from the crowd.
IX.] SEIZURE OF THE PLUNDERER, 263
I rejoined the Bairakdar, who was hurrying on his prisoner
with evident good will.
The Sheikh had already made himself well known to the
authorities by his dealings with the villages, and there was
scarcely a man in the country who could not bring forward
a specious claim against him — either for a donkey, a horse,
a sheep, or a copper kettle. He was consequently most
averse to an interview with the Pasha, and looked with evi-
dent horror on the prospect of a journey to Mosul. I added
considerably to his alarm, by dropping a few friendly hints
on the advantage of the dreary subterranean lock-up house
under the governor's palace, and of the pillory and sticks.
By the time he reached Nimroud, he was fully alive to his
fate, and deemed it prudent to make a full confession. He
sent an Arab to his tents ; and next morning an ass appeared
in my court-yard bearing the missing property, with the ad-
dition of a lamb and a kid, by way of a conciliatory offer-
ing. I dismissed the Sheikh with a lecture, and had after-
wards no reason to complain of him or of his tribe, — nor
indeed of any tribes in the neighbourhood ; for the story got
abroad, and was improved by several horrible details of the
tortures inflicted upon the chief, which could only be traced
to the imagination of the Arabs, but which served to produce
the effect I desired — a proper respect for my property.
During the winter Mr. Longworth,* and two other Eng-
lish travellers, visited me at Nimroud. They were the only
Europeans "(except Mr. Ross) who saw the ruins when un-
covered, f
I was riding home from the ruins one evening with Mr.
Longworth. The Arabs returning from their day's work
were following a flock of sheep belonging to the people of
the village, shouting their war-cry, flourishing their swords,
and indulging in the most extravagant gesticulations. My
friend, less acquainted with the excitable temperament of
the children of the desert than myself, was somewhat amazed
* Now H. M. Consul-General at Belgrade, and the author of an inter-
esting work on Circassia.
\ Mr. H. Danby Seymour was also with me at Nimroud, but before
the excavations were in an advanced stage.
264 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
at these violent proceedings, and desired to learn their cause.
I asked one of the most active of the party. * O Bey/ they
exclaimed almost all together, ' God be praised, we have eaten
butter and wheaten bread under your shadow, and are content
— ^but an Arab is an Arab. It is not for a man to carry
about dirt in baskets, and to use a spade all his life; he
should be with his sword and his mare in the desert. We
are sad as we think of the days when we plundered the
Aneyza, and we must have excitement^ or our hearts would
break. Let us then believe that these are the sheep we have
taken from the enemy, and that we are driving them to our
tents ! ' And oflf they ran, raising their wild cry and flourish-
ing their swords, to the no small alarm of the shepherd, who,
seeing his sheep scampering in all directions, did not seem
incUned to enter into the joke.
By the middle of December, a second cargo of sculptures
was ready to be sent to Baghdad. I was again obliged to
have recourse to the buffalo-carts of the Pasha ; and as none
of the bas-reliefs and objects to be moved were of great
weight, these rotten and unweildy vehicles could be patched
up for the occasion. On Christmas-day I had the satisfac-
tion of seeing a raft, bearing twenty-three cases, in one of
which was the black obehsk, floating down the river. I
watched them until they were out of sight, and then galloped
into Mosul to celebrate the festivities of the season, with the
few Europeans whom duty or business had collected together
in this remote comer of the globe.
X.] DEATH OF TAHYAR PASHA. 265
CHAPTER X.
Death of Tahyar Pasha — Discoveries in the north-west palace — Ivory
ornaments and cartouches with hieroglyphics — Painted chambers —
— Pottery — Discovery of upper chambers — Paintings on the walls —
Pavement slabs — Discoveries in the centre of the mound — Tombs con-
taining vases and ornaments — Sculptures — Further discoveries in the
south-west edifice — Sculptures — Discovery of more tombs in the south-east
corner — Of chambers benaith them — Of a vaulted room.
As I was drawing one morning at the mound, Ibrahim Agha
came to me, with his eyes full of tears, and announced the
death of Tahyar Pasha. The Cawass had followed the
fortunes of the late Governor of Mosul almost since child-
hood, and was looked upon as a member of his family. Like
other Turks of his class, he had been devoted to the service
of his patron, and was treated more like a companion than a
servant. In no country in the world are ties of this nature
more close than in Turkey; nowhere does there exist a
better feeling between the master and the servant, and the
master and the slave.
I was much grieved at the sudden death of Tahyar Pasha;
for he was a man of gentle and kindly manners, just and
considerate inr his government, and of considerable informa-
tion and learning for a Turk. The cause of his death showed
his integrity. His troops had plundered a friendly tribe,
falsely represented to him as rebellious by his principal
officers, who were anxious to have an opportunity of en-
riching themselves with the spoil. When he learnt the truth,
and that the tribe, so far from being hostile, were peaceably
pasturing their flocks on the banks of the Khabour, he ex-
claimed, * You have destroyed my house ' (/. e. its honour) ;
and, without speaking again, died of a broken heart. He
was buried in the court-yard of the principal mosque at
266 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
Mardin. A simple but elegant tomb, surrounded by flowers
and evergreens, was raised over his remains ; and an Arabic
inscription records the virtues and probable reward of one of
the most honest and amiable men that it has been my lot,
in a life of some experience amongst men of various kinds,
to meet. I visited his monument when returning to ^Con-
stantinople. From the lofty terrace, where it stands, the eye
wanders over the vast plains of Mesopotamia, stretching to
the Euphrates, — in spring one great meadow, covered with
the tents and flocks of Kurdish and Arab tribes.
The Kiayah, or chief secretary, was chosen Governor of
the province by the council, until the Porte could name a
new Pasha, or take other steps for the administration of
afiairs. Essad Pasha, who had lately been at Beyrout, was at
length appointed to succeed Tahyar, and soon after reached
his pashalic. These changes did not affect my proceedings.
Armed with my vizirial letter I was able to defy the machina-
tions of the Cadi and the Ulema, who did not cease their
endeavours to throw obstacles in my way.
After Christmas I returned to Nimroud, and the excava-
tions were again carried on with activity.
The N. W. palace was naturally the most interesting por-
tion of the ruins, and to it were principally directed my re-
searches. I had satisfied myself beyond a doubt that it was
the most ancient building yet explored in Assyria; although,
not having been destroyed by fire, it was in a better state of
preservation than any edifice hitherto discovered.
When the excavations were resumed after Christmas, eight
chambers had been discovered. There were 'now so many
outlets, and entrances, that I had no trouble in finding new
chambers — one leading into another. By the end of the
month of April I had uncovered almost the whole building ;
and had opened twenty-eight halls and rooms cased with
alabaster slabs. Although many new sculptures of consider-
able interest were found in them, still the principal part of
the edifice seemed to have been that previously explored,
where the best artists had evidently been employed upon the
walls of the chambers, and the bas-reliefs excelled all those
that had yet been discovered, in the elegance and finish of
X.] DISCOVERIES IN THE A\ W, PALACE, 267
the ornaments, and in the spirited delineation of the figures.
In the other chambers were either winged figures, separated
by the sacred tree, and resembling one another in every re-
spect, or the standard inscription carved upon slabs without
sculpture.
The colossal figure of a woman with four wings, carrying
The King. (N. W. Palace, Nimroud.)
a garland, now in the British Museum, was discovered in a
chamber on the south side of the palace,* as was also the
* In Chamber L, Plan II. In front of this figure was an earthen pipe
connecting the floor of the chamber with a drain — the whole cemented
268 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap. X.
fine bas-relief of the king leaning on a wand or stafif, one of
the best preserved and most highly finished specimens of
Assyrian sculpture in the national collection.
In the centre of the palace was a great hall, or rather court,
for it had probably been without a roof, and. open to the air,
with entrances on the four sides, each formed by colossal
human-headed lions and bulls. The slabs which panelled
the walls were unsculptured, but upon each was the standard
inscription.
To the south of this hall was a cluster of small chambers,
opening into each other. At the entrance to one of them were
two winged human figures wearing garlands, and carrying a
wild goat and an ear of com.* In another chamber were
discovered a number of beautiful ivory ornaments now in the
British Museum. These interesting relics adhered so tena-
ciously to the soil, and were so completely decomposed, that
it was a task of great difficulty to remove them even in frag-
ments. The ivory separated in flakes, or fell into powder.
Consequently many were irretrievably lost, notwithstanding
the care which was taken to collect the smallest pieces.
Those preserved were restored in England by an ingenious
process, which, replacing the gelatinous matter, and thus re-
uniting the decaying particles into one solid body, gave them
the appearance and consistency of recent ivory.
The most interesting and important of these ivories are
two small tablets, one nearly entire, the other much injured,
on each of which are carved two sitting figures, holding in
one hand the Egyptian sceptre or symbol of power. Between
the figures is the cartouche or oval, which, in ancient Egyp
tian inscriptions, always surrounds a royal name. It con-
tains a group of hieroglyphics, and is surmounted by a feather
or plume, such as is seen on monuments of the eighteenth
and subsequent dynasties of Egyptf The robes of the figures,
with bitumen. It may have been used to carry oflf the blood of the
sacrifices.
* One of these figures is in the British Museum.
+ A * cartouche ' is the oval which contains a royal name in Egyptian
inscriptions. Amongst the firagments of ivory described in the text were
two cartouches, one in perfect preservation, and containing a name which
270 NIX EVEN AND ITS REMAINS. [CHAP.
the chairs on which they are seated, the hieroglyphics in the
cartouche, and tiie feather above it, were enamelled with a
blue substance let into the ivory ; and the uncarved portions
of the tablet, the cartouche, and part of the figures, were
originally gilded, — remains of the gold leaf having been found
still adhering to them. The forms, and style of art, have an
Eg}'ptian character; although there are certain peculiarities
in the execution, and mode of treatment, that would seem to
mark the work of a foreign, perhaps a Phoenician or Assyrian,
artist The same peculiarities characterised all the other
ivory objects discovered. Several small human heads in
fi^mes, supported by low pillars, and the heads of lions and
bulls, show not only a considerable acquaintance with art,
but an intimate knowledge of the process of working in ivory.
Upon some oblong tablets, found with them, were sculptured,
with great delicacy, standing figures, with one hand elevated,
and holding in the other a stem or staff, surmounted by an
ornament resembling the Eg>'ptian lotus. Scattered about
were fragments of winged sphinxes, the head of a lion of
singular beauty, which unfortunately fell to pieces, human
heads, hands, legs, and feet, bulls, flowers, and scroll-work,
all in ivory. In these fi-agments the spirit of the design
and the delicacy of the workmanship are equally to be ad-
mired. Some may have belonged to a throne or chest, or
may have decorated the walls or ceilings of the room. In
the Old Testament we find frequent allusion to the employ-
ment of this beautiful material for ornaments both in archi-
tecture and on ftumitiu-e. Ahab had an ivory house, and
ivory palaces are mentioned in the Psalms. Solomon made
a throne of ivory, and ivory beds are spoken of by the pro-
phets.* The hands and feet probably belonged to entire
reads Aubnu-ra, or Auvnu-ra (? the shining sun).; the other partly
destroyed, and in which only three s)rmbols, reading NTA, or NATH,
remain. It is doubtfiil whether these cartouches contain the names oi
Assyrian kings expressed in Egyptian hieroglyphics, or the names of
Egyptian deities. The names have not yet, I believe, been identified.
These ivory tablets, together with other remains in the same material,
are now in the British Museum.
* Compare I Kings, x. i8, and xxil 39 ; Psalms, xlv. 8 ; Amos, iiL
15 and vi 4. *
X.] DISCOVERY OF PAINTED CHAMBERS. 271
human figures, the draped part of which was in wood or
metal, Hke the chryselephantine statues of the Greeks, for
which they may have originally furnished the model.
On two slabs, forming an entrance to a small chamber in
this part of the building,* were inscriptions containing the
name of Sargon, the king who built the KLhorsabad palace.
They had been cut above the usual standard inscription, to
which they were evidently posterior, which proves, if further
proof were needed, that the Nimroud palace is more ancient
than that of Khorsabad. •
In all the chambers to the south of the centre court were
found copper vessels of peculiar shape ; but they fell to pieces
almost immediately on exposure to the air, and I was unable
to preserve one of them entire.
"When the chambers panelled with alabaster slabs ceased,
I was unable for some time to trace any remains of the build-
ing beyond. A brick pavement proved that the ruins did not
end here, and on a careful examination it was found that we
had entered chambers, the walls of which were of sun-dried
bricks, covered with a, coating of plaster, and painted with
figures and ornaments. The colours had faded so completely,
that scarcely any of the subjects or designs could be traced.
It required the greatest care to separate the rubbish from the
walls, without removing, at the same time, the thin plaster
which fell off in flakes, notwithstanding all my efforts to pre-
serve it. The subject of the paintings, as far as could be
ascertained from the few fragments preserved, was the king,
followed by eunuchs and warriors, receiving prisoners and
tribute. The figures appear to have been merely drawn in
black outline upon a blue ground, and I was unable to dis-
tinguish any other colours.
As the means at my disposal did not warrant any outlay in
. making mere experiments, without the certainty of the dis-
covery of removable objects, I felf myself compelled, much
against my inclination, to abandon the excavations in this
part of the mound, after uncovering portions of two chambers.
The doorway, which united them, was paved with one large
* Chamber U, Plan II. p. 42.
272
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS.
[Chap.
slab, ornamented with flowers and scroll-work. The flooring
was of baked bricks.
On the western face of the great mound, to the south of
the N. W. palace, there is a considerable elevation. To
ascertain its contents, a trench was opened on a level with
the platform. It was some time before I found that we were
cutting into a kind of tower, or nest of upper chambers, con-
structed entirely of unbaked bricks, the walls being plastered,
and elaborately painted. I explored three rooms, and part
of a fourth on the southern side of this building.
Plan 111. Upper Chambers on the West Side of the Mound. (Nimroud.)
It is probable that there were four similar groups of cham-
bers, facing the cardinal points. In front of the southern
entrance* was a large square slab with slightly raised edges,
similar to those frequently found in the N. W. palace. On
two sides of it were laid narrow pieces of alabaster, forming
parallel lines, which I can only compare to the rails of a rail-
Entrance a. Plan III.
X.] DISCOVERIES IN UPPER CHAMBERS. 273
road. I cannot fonn any conjecture as to their use. The
rooms had been more than once paitited, and two distinct
coats of plaster were visible on the walls. The outer coating,
when carefully detached, left the under, on which the designs
were diflferent
These painted ornaments were remarkable for their ele-
gance. The Ass}Tian bull was introduced into them, some-
times with wings, sometimes without Above the animals
was a border resembling the battlements of castles in the
sculptures, and below another border formed by squares and
circles, tastefully arranged. The colours were blue, red, white,
yellow, and black; and, although thus Hmited in number,
were arranged with much taste and skill, the contrasts being
carefully studied, and the combinations generally agreeable
to the eye. The pale yellow ground, on which the designs
were painted, resembled the tint on the walls of Egyptian
monuments. A strong well-defined black outline is a pe-
culiar feature in Assyrian as in Egyptian painting ; black fre-
quently combining with white alone, or alternating with
other colours.
But the most important discovery, connected with these
upper chambers, was that of the pavement slabs at two en-
trances. The inscriptions upon them contained the names
of several kings, most of which were new, and are of much
interest, as adding to the list of Assyrian monarchs.*
I could not ascertain whether there were any chambers, or
remains of buildings, beneath this upper edifice ; or whether
it was part of a tower constructed on the solid outer wall. A
deep trench was opened on the eastern side of it, and, about
twenty feet below the surface, a pavement of brick and several
square slabs of alabaster were uncovered; but these remains
did not throw any light upon the nature of the building above;
nor were they sufficient to show that the N. W. palace had
been carried under it To the south of it there were no re-
* One of these slabs is in the British Museum. According to Mr.
Rawlinson (* Ancient Monarchies,' vol. ii. p. 381), the king who built
the upper chambers, and whose name is found on these slabs, was called
♦Iva-lush.' Sir Henry Rawlinson calls him at one time Vul-lush, at
another, Yama-zala-khus ; M. Oppert, Hu-likh-khus. There were, it
would seem, three earlier kings bearing the same name.
T
274 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
mains of building, the platform of unbaked bricks being con-
tinued up to the level of the flooring of the chambers.
I had in vain endeavoured to find the walls and other re-
mains of the palace which must at one time have stood
in the centre of the mound. Except the colossal bulls, the
obelisk, two winged figures, and a few fragments of yellow
limestone, which appeared to have formed part of a gigantic
human-headed bull or lion, no sculptures had yet been dis-
covered there. Excavations to the south of the bulls dis-
closed a tomb built of bricks and closed by a slab of alabaster.
It was about five feet in length, and scarcely more thau
eighteen inches in breadth in the interior. On removing the
lid, parts of a skeleton were exposed to view; the skull and
some of the larger bones were still entire, but soon crumbled
into dust A vase of reddish clay, with a long narrow neck,
stood near the body, in an earthen dish of such delicate
fabric, that I had great difficulty in moving it entire. Over
the mouth of the vase was placed a bowl or cup, also of red
clay. In the dust, which had accumulated round the skeleton,
were found beads and small ornaments of opaque-coloured
glass, agate, cornelian, and amethyst, apparently belonging to
a necklace, to the end of which had been attached a small
crouching lion of lapis lazuli. With the beads was a cylinder,
on which was represented an Assyrian king in his chariot,
hunting the wild bull, as in the bas-relief from the N. W.
palace; a copper ornament resembling a modem seal, two
bracelets of silver, and a pin for the hair. These remains
show the tomb to be that of a female.*
On digging beyond this tomb, I found others, similarly
constructed, and of the same size. In them were vases of
highly glazed green pottery, elegant in shape, and in perfect
preservation, copper mirrors, and copper lustral spoons. All
these tombs probably belong to the Roman or Parthian
period.f
* Most of the small objects discovered in the tombs, and described in
the text, are now in the British Museum.
+ The Rev. Mr. Rawlinson (* Ancient Monarchies,* vol. ii. pp. 207,
220) has given an engraving of one of these mirrors, and of a lustral
spoon, and has assumed that they are Assyrian ; but I have no doubt
X.] SCULPTURES IN A CENTRE PALACE, 275
About five feet beneath these tombs, I found the remains
of a building. Walls of unbaked bricks could still be traced ;
but the alabaster slabs, with which they had been panelled,
Pottery found in the Tombs above the Ruins at Nimroud.*
had been removed and were heaped on the pavement Slab
succeeded to slab ; and when I had removed nearly twenty
tombs, and had cleared a space about fifty feet square, the
ruins presented a very singular appearance. Above one
hundred slabs were uncovered, placed in rows, one against
the other, like the leaves of a gigantic book. Every slab was
sculptured ; and as they followed each other according to the
subjects upon them, it was evident that they had been moved,
in the order in which they stood, from their original positions ;
and had been left as they were found, preparatory to their
removal elsewhere. That they had not been thus collected
prior to their arrangement against the walls, was evident from
the fact, that the Assyrian sculptors carved the bas-rehefs,
that all the contents of these tombs must be referred to the Roman or
Parthian occupation of the country on the banks of the Tigris.
* The Rev. Mr. Rawlinson has reproduced this wood-cut in his
•Ancient Monarchies' (vol. i. p. 479), as indeed he has reproduced
almost every illustration in my two works on Nineveh, and has called
this pottery * Assyrian. ' They are, I have no doubt, of a comparatively
late period, probably Roman or Parthian.
T 2
276
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. X.
though not the great bulls and lions, after the slabs had been
placed. The backs of the slabs had also been cut away,
in order to reduce their dimensions, and to render their
transport more easy. To the south of the centre bulls were
two colossal figures in relief, similar to those discovered to
the north.
The bas-reliefs resembled, in many respects, some of those
discovered in the S. W. palace, in which the sculptured faces
of the slabs were turned, it will be remembered, towards the
walls of unbaked brick. It would appear, therefore, that the
one building had been destroyed, to supply materials for the
construction of the other.
The subjects of the sculptures thus found collected together,
with the exception of a few colossal figures of the king and
his attendant eunuchs, and of the winged priests or divinities,
were principally battle-pieces and sieges. In some of these
bas-reliefs cities were seen standing on a river, in the midst
of groves of date-trees, and amongst the people with whom the
Assyrians were represented as fighting were warriors mounted
on camels. It may be inferred, therefore, that one series of
sculptures recorded the conquest of an Arab nation, or per-
haps of a part of Babylonia — the inhabitants of the cities
being assisted by auxiliaries from the neighbouring desert.
Helmets. (Centre Palace, Nimroud.)
The conquered races, as in the bas-reliefs of the N.W. palace,
were generally represented without armour or helmets, their
hair falling loosely on their shoulders. Some, however, wore
helmets, which differed in shape from those of the Assyrians.
The battering-rams seen in these sculptures also differed
278 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
in form from those represented on the earlier monuments.
The besieged castles, like those of the Assyrians, appear to
have been built upon artificial mounds. The battering-ram
was rolled up to the walls on an inclined plane constructed
of earth, stones, and trees, which appears to have been some-
times paved with bricks or squared stones, to facilitate the
ascent of the engine. This mode of besi^ing a city, as well
as the various methods of attack portrayed in the sctdptures,
is frequently alluded to in the Old Testament Ezekiel,*
prophesying of Jerusalem, exclaims, * Lay siege against it,
and buUd a fort against 2/, and cast a mound against it ; set
the camp also against it^ and set battering-rams against it
round about :' and Isaiah, *Thus saith the Lord concerning
the king of Ass3nria : he shall not come into this city, nor
shoot an arrow there, nor come before it with shields, nor
cast a bank against it.'f The shields here mentioned by the
prophet are probably those of wicker-work, represented in
the bas-reliefs as covering the whole person and jesting on
the ground. Some of the battering-rams were not provided
with towers for armed men, and some were without wheels ;
the latter were probably * the fcHts ' which Nebuchadnezzar
built round about JerusalenuJ These forts appear to have
been mere temporary erections of wood and wicker-work ;
and the Jews were expressly forbidden to use in their con-
struction trees affording sustenance to man, — * only the trees
which thou knowest that they be not trees for meat, thou
shalt destroy and cut them down ; and tAou shalt build bul-
warks against the city that maketh war with thee, until it be
subdued.' § Ezekiel, in prophesying the destruction of Tyre
by Nebudiadrezzar, has faithfiilly recorded the events of an
Assyrian si^e, and the treatment of the conquered people ;
his description illustrates, in a remarkable manner, the bas-
reliefs of Nimroud :-^
* Thus saith the Lord God ; Behold, I will bring upon
Tyrus Nebuchadrezzar king of Babylon, a king of kings,
♦ Chap. iv. 2.
i* Isaiah, xzxviL 33 ; compare 2 Kings, xix. 32 ; Jeremiali, xxxiL 24.
and xxxiiL 4 ; Ezekid, xviL 17.
X Jeremiah, liL 4. % Dent xx. 19, 2a
X.]
DESCRIPTION OF A SIEGE.
279
from the north, with horses, and with chariots, and with
horsemen, and companies, and much people. He shall
slay with the sword thy daughters in the field : and he shall
make a fort against thee, and cast a mound against thee,
and lift up the buckler against thee. And he shall set
engines of war against thy walls, and with his axes he
shall break down thy towers. By reason of the abundance
Warriors before a besieged City. A Battering-ram drawn up to the Walls,
and Captives impaled. (Centre Palace, Nimroud.)
of his horses, their dust shall cover thee : thy walls shall
shdke at the noise of the horsemen, and of the wheels,
and of the chariots, when he shall enter into thy gates,
as men enter into a city wherein is made a breach.
With the hoofs of his horses shall he tread down all thy
streets : he shall slay thy people by the sword, and thy
28o
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap,
strong garrisons shall go down to the ground. And they
shall make a spoil of thy riches, and make a prey of thy
merchandise ; and they shall break down thy walls, and
destroy thy pleasant houses : and they shall lay thy stones
and thy timber and thy dust in the midst of the water/*
The battering-ram appears to have been directed by
men within the framework, which was frequently covered
with drapery or . hides, ornamented with fringes and even
with devices.
Assyrian Warriors fightine with the Enemy. An Eagle is carrying away
the Entrails of the Slain. (Centre Palace, Nimroud.)
On two slabs was a bas-relief of considerable interest,
representing the sack of a city.f The conquerors were
seen carrying away the spoil, and two eunuchs, standing
* Ezek. xxvi. 7-12.
+ Now in the British Museum.
X.] CAPTIVE WOMEN AND SPOILS. 281
near the gates, wrote down with a pen, probably an iron
stylus, on rolls of parchment, papyrus, or leather, the
number of sheep and cattle driven away by the soldiers.
In the lower part of the bas-relief were carts drawn by
oxen, and carrying women and children. Near the gates
Captive Women in a Cart drawn by Oxen. (Centre Palace, Nimroud.)
were two battering-rams, which, as the city had been taken,
had been abandoned.
Amongst other bas-reliefs may be mentioned the king
seated on his throne, receiving prisoners with their arms
bound behind them ; eunuchs registering the heads of
the enemy, laid at their feet by the conquerors; idols
borne on the shoulders of men ; and a walled city stand-
ing on the sea, or on a river.
The spoil represented in these bas-reliefs as carried away
from the conquered nations, consisted chiefly of cattle,
sheep, and camels. The cattle were evidently of two kinds,
probably the buffalo and common ox, distinguished in the
sculptures by horns curved towards the back of the head,
and horns projecting in front. The sheep also appear to
have been of two species ; one with the broad tail which
is still found in the country, and is described by Herodotus
as peculiar to Mesopotamia.* The goats have long spiral
horns. The camel is faithfully delineated. This valuable
animal formed at the remotest period the riches of the
inhabitants of Assyria and Arabia, and was no doubt by
* Lib. iii. c. 113. This broad tail is mentioned in Leviticus, iii. 9,
vii. 3, where it is rendered * rump. '
282
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
them, as it still is by the Bedouins, ranked amongst the
most desirable objects of plunder. The fleet camel, or
dromedary, was used even in those days by couriers, and
for posts, and flocks of camels were possessed by Abraham
and Jacob.*
To the east of the centre bulls several slabs were dis-
covered, still standing in their original position. The lower
part of the bas-reliefs alone remained, the upper having
Walled City standing on a River, or on the Sea. (Centre Palace, Nimroud.)
been completely destroyed. They represented colossal
winged figures, carrying the usual square Vessel, and
sacred flowers of various forms.
The only part of the S. W. palace, sufficiently well pre-
served to give any idea of its original form, was one large
hall curiously constructed. It had two entrances, formed
by human-headed bulls and lions sculptured in a coarse
* Esther, viii. lo, 14 ; Genesis, xii. 16, xxx. 43 ; and compare Gene-
sis, xxiv. 19, xxxi. 34; I Samuel, xxx. 17.
X.] DESCRIPTION OF BAS-RELIEFS, 283
grey limestone ; and, in the centre, was a portal, or a kind
of partition (also formed by winged bulls), which divided
Ihe hall into four distinct parts, but appears to have been
merely intended to support beams for the roof. Between
the bulls forming this centre portal were a pair of sphinxes.*
The whole of this hall was panelled with slabs brought
from other buildings. Some, and by far the greater number,
were from the N. W., others from the centre, palace. But
there were matiy bas-reliefs which differed in the style
of art from the sculptures discovered in either of those
ruins. From whence they came I am unable to determine ;
whether from a palace of another period once existing at
Nimroud, and still concealed in a part of the mound not
yet explored, or from some edifice in the neighbourhood, f
All the walls had been exposed to a great conflagration,
which seems to have destroyed the whole palace; and the
slabs, nearly reduced to lime, were too much injured to bear
removal. They were not all sculptured ; the bas-reliefs
being scattered here and there, and always turned to-
wards the wall of sun-dried brick, so that in no instance
could they have been intended as a part of the ornament-
ation of the building.
Amongst the most interesting bas-reliefs discovered were
the following : — ^A king seated on his throne, receiving
his vizir, and surrounded by his attendants, within the
walls of a castle; a warrior wearing a crested helmet on
a rearing horse, asking quarter of Assyrian horsemen; a
spearman on horseback hunting the wild bull; the king
of the N. Ay. palace (Sardanapalus) in his chariot fighting
with the enemy; the siege of a castle, in which was re-
presented a bucket attached to a pulley; a pair of human-
headed bulls in low relief; and a king placing his foot
on the neck of a captive, and raising a spear in his right
hand — (the only instance in which he is represented at
♦ See Plan I. by p. 22.
+ It seems probable that these sculptures had been brought from
a palace built by Tiglath-Pileser, the ruins of which were subsequently
discovered beneath the remains of a building in the south-east comer
of the mound.
284 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
Nimroud with this weapon) — a bas-relief illustrating the
passage of Scripture which describes the captains of Israel
placing their feet upon the necks of the captive kings : 'And
it came to pass, when they brought out those kings unto
Enemy asking Quarter of Assyrian Horsemen. (S. W. Palace, Nimroud.)
Joshua, that Joshua called for all the men of Israel, and
said unto the captains of the men of war which went
with him, Come near, and put your feet upon the necks of
these kings. And they came near, and put their feet upon
the necks of them.'* To make *a footstool of mine
* Joshua, X. 24.
X.]
IDOLS CARRIED AWAY.
285
enemies* is a common biblical expression of triumph. A
bas-relief representing a procession of warriors carrying
away the idols of a conquered nation, was important on
account of the figures of the gods. The first was ap-
parently that of a woman seated on a high-back chair,
holding a ring in one hand and a kind of fan in the other.
Her face was in full, and she wore the horned cap sur-
Part of a Bas-relief, showing a Pulley, and a Warrior cutting a Bucket
from a Rope.
mounted by a star. The next figure was also that of a
seated female, wearing a similar cap and holding a ring
in one hand. The third was partly concealed by a screen
placed on a chair ; and the fourth was that of a walking
man with four horns on his head, raising an axe in one hand
and grasping an object resembling the conventional thun-
derbolt of the Greek Jove, in the other. The female figures
Chap. X.] BABYLONIAN IDOLS, 287
may be those of Hera and Rhea, who were worshipped in
a temple of Babylon; whilst the god may be identified
with Baal or Belus, the supreme deity of the Semitic races,
who, according to Diodorus Siculus, was represented in the act
of walking. The bas-relief illustrates more than one passage
in the Bible. Hosea prophesied that the idols of Samaria
should be carried away by the Assyrians;* and Jeremiah
declares that the Babylonians should bum the gods of the
Egyptians, and carry them away captive,\ In the epistle
supposed to have been written by the prophet Jeremiah
to the captive Jews, to warn them against the idolatries
of the Babylonians, we find the following remarkable de-
scription of the gods represented in the Assyrian sculptures.
* Now shall ye see, in Babylon, gods of silver, and of gold,
and of wood, borne upon shoulders. And he that cannot put
to death one that offendeth him holdeth a sceptre, as though
he were a judge of the country. He hath also in his right
hand a dagger and an axe'% (like the figure in the bas-
relief). We learn from the same epistle that these idols were
of wood laid over with gold, and that parts of them were
polished by the workmen, that crowns were placed on their
heads, and that they were decked out in garments and purple
raiment, and that fires or lamps were kept burning before
them. Jeremiah describes the gods of the heathen as cut out
of a tree of the forest, decked with silver and gold fastened
with nails, and with blue and purple garments.§ The star
surmounting the homed cap of the figures in the bas-relief
appears to point to an astral system personified in the idols;
and it is to this custom of placing the star on the head
of the god to which the prophet Amos probably alludes,
when he condemns the house of Israel for having *bome
the tabemacle of Molorh and Chiun, their images and
the star of their god, which they had made for themselves.' ||
Some of the sculptures had been carefully erased, and
only a few traces of the figures remained. Several of the
♦ Chap. X. 6. + Chap, xliii. 12.
X That the Jews looked upon this epistle as genuine, may be inferred
from the reference to it in 2 Maccab. xi. 2, 3.
§ Chap. X. 4, 9. II Chap. v. 26.
288 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
bas-reliefs were accompanied by descriptive inscriptions ;
and 01 the pavement was discovered a tablet recording
the conquests of a king whose name had not been pre-
viously found on any Assyrian monument*
The three entrances on the south side of the palace ap-
pear to have led into a magnificent court, about 220 feet in
length, the northern entrance to which was also formed
by a pair of human-headed bulls. The side walls had in
some places completely disappeared, and the sculptures
which wer.e still standing had all suffered more or less
from the conflagration and subsequent long exposure to
the atmosphere.
As the level of the S. W. palace was considerably above
that of the N. W., and as the site from which many sculp-
tures in it had been brought had not been discovered, it
appeared to me possible that it had been built over the
ruins of some more ancient building. By way of experi-
ment, therefore, I directed long and very deep trenches
to be opened in three different directions : nothing, how-
ever, was found, but a box or square hole, twenty feet
beneath the surface, formed by bricks carefully fitted to-
gether, and containing several small idols in unbaked clay.
They were bearded figures, wearing high pointed mitres,
and had probably been placed, for some religious purpose,
beneath the foundations of the building. Objects some-
what similar, and in the same material, were discovered
at Khorsabad, under the pavement slabs, between the great
bulls.
Near the southern entrance to the great hall was found,
amidst a mass of charred wood and charcoal, and beneath a
fallen slab, part of a beam in good preservation, apparently
of mulberry wood.
It may be inferred that there was a very long interval be-
tw^een the time of the construction of the N.W. and of the
* The name of this king has been since identified with that of Tiglath-
Pileser, mentioned in the Book of Kings and in Isaiah. Its Assyrian
form, according to Sir H. Rawlinson, is * Tukulti-pal-zira ; ' or, accord-
ing to Dr. Hincks, * Tiklat-pal-isri ; ' and it was borne by two earlier
kings. His wars against Menahem, king of Samaria, and Hiram, king
of Tyre, are described in the inscriptions discovered at Nimroud.
X.] DISCOVERY OF TOMBS. 289
S.W. palaces. A considerable period must have elapsed be-
fore a monarch destroyed the monuments of his predeces-
sors to raise out of the materials a new habitation for himself
or his gods. Some great change must have taken place be-
fore such an event could have happened. It seems highly
probable that a new dynasty of kings had ejected the older
royal family; and, as conquerors, had introduced a new ele-
ment into • the nation. There are remarkable differences
in the costume of the king, the forms of the chariots, the
trappings of the horses, and the arms and armour of the
warriors, which tend to prove that some such change had
taken place in Assyria between the destruction of the N.W.
palace at Nimroud and the erection of that at Khorsabad.
The state of art, as shown in the sculptures, and the reli-
gious emblems, differed materially during the two periods,
and further point to a change in manners, the state of civil-
isation, and religion.
The south-east comer of the mound, which was consider-
ably above the level of any other part, appears to have
been used as a burying-place by those who occupied the
country after the destruction of the Assyrian palaces. Be-
sides the tombs already described, many others were sub-
sequently discovered there. The earthen sarcophagi were
mostly of the shape of a dish-cover ; but there were other
tombs constructed of bricks well fitted together and covered
by slabs, similar to those above the ruins in the centre of
the mound. In nearly all were found bowls, vases, copper
and silver ornaments, and small alabaster bottles. The
skeletons, as soon as uncovered, crumbled to pieces, although
entire when first exposed, and one skull alone has been pre-
served. Scattered amongst these tombs were vases of all
sizes, lamps, and small objects of pottery — some uninjured,
others broken into fragments.*
Removing the tombs, I discovered beneath them the re-
mains of a building, and explored seven chambers. No
sculptures or inscriptions were found in them; the lower
part of the walls being panelled with plain slabs of limestone,
♦ Many of the small objects are in the British Museum.
U
290 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
three feet seven inches high and from two to three feet wide,
and the upper being built of sun-dried bricks, covered by a
thick coat of white plaster.
In the rubbish, near the bottom of the chambers, were
found several small objects ; amongst them a female head
in white alabaster, now in the British Museum.
.It only remains for me to mention a singular discovery on
the eastern face of the mound, near its northern extremity.
A trench having been opened from the outer slope, the work-
men came upon a small vaulted chamber, about ten feet
high, and the same in width, fifteen feet below the level of
the mound, and in the centre of a wall of sun-dried bricks,
nearly fifty feet thick. The vault, constructed on the true
principle of the arch, and thus proving that the Assyrians,
like the Egyptians, were acquainted with it at that remote
period, was built of baked bricks. The chamber was filled
with rubbish, the greater part of which was a kind of slag,
and the bricks forming the vault and walls were almost vitri-
fied, evidently from exposure to intense heat. The chamber
had thus the appearance of a large furnace for making glass
or fusing metal. I am unable to account for its use, as there
was no access to it, as far as I could ascertain from any side.
Much, of course, remained to be explored in the mound ;
but with the limited means at my disposal I was unable to
pursue my researches to the extent that I could have wished.
If, after carrying a trench to a reasonable depth and distance,
no remains of sculpture or inscription were discovered, I
abandoned it and renewed the experiment elsewhere. I
could thus ascertain, whether any considerable ruins of an
edifice not yet explored were beneath the surface. There
was sufficient to be done in uncovering the remains already
discovered, and in removing the sculptures, to render it inex-
pedient to incur unnecessary expense in mere experiments
which might lead to no unmediate results ; and a great part
of the mound of Nimroud was left to be explored, when the
ruins of Assyria could be further examined.
XI.] EXCAVATIONS AT KALAH SHERGHAT, 291
CHAPTER XI.
Excavations at Kalah Sherghat — Departure for the ruins — The bitu-
men pits — AbcTrubbou — My reception — Discovery of a sitting Jigure —
Arab encampment — ArcA life — Excavations in the mound — Discovery
of tombs — Return to Ntmroud.
I HAD long wished to excavate in the great mound of Kalah
Sherghat, an Assyrian ruin on the right bank of the Tigris,
about forty miles below Mosul, which rivalled in extent those
of Nimroud and Kouyunjik. An Arab, from the Shammar
Bedouins, would occasionally spend a night amongst my work-
men, and entertain them with accounts of idols and sculptured
figures of giants, which had long been the cause of wonder
and awe to the wandering tribes, who pitch their tents near
this spot On my first visit, I had searched in vain for such
remains; but the Arabs, who are accustomed to seek for
pasture during the spring in the neighbourhood, persisted in
their assertions, and offered to show me where these strange
statues, carved, it was said, in black stone, were to be found.
As scarcely a ruin in Mesopotamia is without its wondrous
tale of apparitions and Frank idols, I concluded that these
sculptures only existed in the fertile imagination of the Arabs.
I determined, however, to dig at Kalah Sherghat, but as the
vicinity is notoriously dangerousj^ being a place of rendezvous
for plundering parties of the Shammar, Aneyza, and Obeid
Bedouins, I had deferred a visit to the spot until I could
remain there for a short time under the protection of some
powerful tribe. This safeguard was also absolutely necessary
in the event of my leaving workmen there to excavate.
There being no pasture in the neighbourhood of Mosul
this year on account of the want of rain, the three great
divisions of the Jebour Arabs sought the jungles on the
banks of the Tigris. Abd'rubbou with his tribe descended
u 2
29'^ NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
tlie river, and first pitching his tents at Senidij, near the
confluence of the Tigris and the Zab, subsequently moved
towards Kalah Sherghat I thought this a favourable time
for excavating in the great mound ; and the Sheikh having
promised to supply me with Arabs for the work, and with
guards for their defence, I sent Mansour, one of my super-
intendents, to the spot. I followed some days afterwards,
accompanied by Mr. Hormuzd Rassam, the Bairakdar, and
several well-armed men, chosen from amongst the Jebours
who were employed at Nimroud.
We crossed the Tigris on a small raft, — our horses having
to swim the river. Striking into the desert by the Wadi
Jehainah, we rode through a tract of land, at this time of
year usually covered with vegetation; but then, from the
drought, a barren waste. During some hours' ride we scarcely
saw a human being, except a solitary shepherd in the dis-
tance, driving before him his half-famished flock. We reached
at sunset a small encampment of Jebours. The tents were
pitched in the midst of a cluster of high reeds on the banks
of the Tigris, and nearly opposite to the tomb of Sultan Abd-
AUah. They were so well concealed, that it required the
experienced eye of a -Bedouin to detect them* by the thin
smoke rising above the thicket. The cattle and sheep found
scanty pasturage in a marsh formed by the river. The Arabs
were as poor and miserable as their beasts ; they received us,
however, with hospitality, and killed a very lean lamb for our
entertainment.
Near the encampment was a quadrangle, formed by low
mounds, resembling on a small scale the great inclosures of
Nimroud and Kouyunjik, and evidently marking the site of
an Assyrian town or fort. I searched for some time, but
without success, for fragments of pottery or brick inscribed
with cuneiform characters.
On the following day we passed the bitumen pits, or the
* Kiyara,' as they are called by the Arabs. They cover a con-
* In the desert, the vicinity of an encampment is generally marked by
some sign well known to the tribe. It would otherwise be very difficult
to discover the tents, pitched, as they usually are, in some hollow or
ravine to conceal them from hostile plundering parties.
XL] SHEIKH ABURUBBOU, 293
siderable extent of ground ; the bitumen mixed with water
bubbling up in springs from crevices in the earth and form-
ing small pools. The Jebours, and other tribes encamping
near the place, carry the bitumen for sale to Mosul, and other
parts of the pashalic. It is used for building purposes, for
coating boats, and particularly for smearing camels, when
suffering from certain diseases of the skin to which they are
liable. Before leaving the pits, the Arabs, as is their habit,
set fire to the bitumen, which sent forth a dense black smoke,
obscuring the sky, and visible for many miles. We reached
the tents of Abd'rubbou early in the afternoon. They were
pitched about ten miles to the north of Kalah Sherghat, at
the upper end of a long tongue of rich alluvial soil, lying be-
tween the river and a range of low hills. The great mound
was visible from this spot, rising high above the Zor, or jungle,
which clothes the banks of the Tigris.
No Sheikh could have made a more creditable show of
friendship than did Abd'rubbou. He rode out to meet me,
and, without delay, ordered sheep enough to be slain to
feast half his tribe. I decUned, however, to spend the night
with him, as he pressed me to do, on the plea that I was
anxious to see the result of the excavations already com-
menced at Kalah Sherghat. He volunteered to accompany
me to the ruins after we had breakfasted, and declared that
if a blade of grass were to be found near the mound, he would
move all his tents there immediately for my protection. In
the meanwhile, to do me proper honour, he introduced me
to his wives, and to his sister, whose beauty I had often
heard extolled by the Jebours, and who was not altogether
undeserving of her reputation. She was still unmarried.
Abd'rubbou himself was one of the handsomest Arabs in
Mesopotamia.
We started for the ruins in the afternoon, and rode along
the edge of the jungle. Hares, wolves, foxes, jackals, and
wild boars continually crossed our path, and game of all
kinds, especially partridges and francolins, seemed to abound.
The Arabs gave chase; but the animals were able to enter
the thick brushwood, and conceal themselves before my grey-
hounds could reach them. Lions are sometimes found near
294 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
Kalah Sherghat, rarely higher up on the Tigris.* As I floated
down to Baghdad a year before, I had heard the roar of a
lion not far from this spot : they are, however, seldom seen,
and we beat the bushes in vain for such noble game.
As for grass, except in scanty tufts at the foot of the trees
in the jungle, there appeared to be none at all. The drought
had been felt all over the desert : in the place of the green
meadows of last year, covered with flowers, and abounding
in natural reservoirs of water, there was a naked yellow waste,
in which even the abstemious flocks of the Bedouin could
scarcely escape starvation. As we road along, Abd'rubbou
examined every comer and ravine in the hope of finding an
encamping place, and a Httle pasture for his catde, but his
search was not attended with much success.
The workmen on the mound, seeing horsemen approach,
made ready for an encounter, under the impression that we
were a foraging party from a hostile tribe. As soon, however,
as they recognised us, they threw off the few superfluous
garments they possessed. Dropping their shirts from their
shoulders, and tying them round their waists by the arms,
they set up the war-cry, and rushed in and out of the trenches
like madmen.
The principal excavations had been made on the western
side of the mound. After I had succeeded in obtaining
silence, and calming the sudden fit of enthusiasm which had
sprung up on my arrival, I descended into the trenches. A
sitting figure in black basalt, of the size of life, had been un-
covered. It was, however, much mutilated. The head and
hands had been destroyed, and other parts of the statue
had been injured. The square stool, or block, upon which
the figure sat, was covered on three sides with cuneiform
inscription. The first line, containing the name and titles
* The lion is frequently met with on the banks of the Tigris, below
Baghdad, rarely above. On the Euphrates it has been seen, I believe,
almost as high as Bir, where the steamers of the first Euplu^tes expe-
dition, under Colonel Chesney, were launched. In the Sinjar, and on
the banks of the Khabour, they are frequently caught by the Arabs.
They abound in Khuzistan, the ancient Susiana : I have frequently seen
three or four together, and have hunted them with the chiefs of the
tribes mhabiting that province.
XI.]
SITTING FIGURE OF A KING-
295
of the king, was almost defaced ; but one or two characters
enabled me to identify them with those on the great bulls
in the centre of the mound at Nimroud. On casting my
eye down the first column of the inscription, I found the
names of Sardanapalus, this king's father (the builder of the
most ancient palace of Nimroud), and of his grandfather.*
An Arab soon afterwards brought me a brick bearing a short
.•IMIWWN ;»ir?.7tf>vniA«v,-5^iwML|
Sitting Figure in Basalt from Kalah Sherghat
legend, which contained the three names together. Th^
newly discovered ruins were consequently those of a build-
ing contemporaneous witii the centre palace of Nimroud.
The figure probably represented the king. The hanas
appear to have rested on the knees, and a long robe, edged
with tassels, reached to the ankles. The Arabs declared
that this statue had been seen some years before ; and it is
possible that, at some period of heavy rain, it may have been
for a short time exposed to view, and subsequently reburied
* The name of this king, according to Sir Henry Rawlinson, is
Tiglath-Ussur ; according to Dr. Hincks, Shimish-Bar.
296 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
It stood on a spur of the mound, and probably in its original
position. Mansour had dug trenches at right angles with it
on four sides, in the expectation of finding a corresponding
figure; but he was disappointed in his search, and no re-
mains of building were discovered near it*
In other parts of the mound there were ruins of walls, but
we found no more sculptures. Several tombs, similar to
those above the palaces of Nimroud, had been opened ; and
Mansour brought me earthen vases and cups taken from
them. He had also picked up, amongst the rubbish, a few
fragments of black stone with small figures in relief^ and
cuneiform characters, and a piece of copper similarly in-
scribed
Having made a hasty siirvey of the trenches, I rode to my
tent, which had been pitched in the midst of those of my
workmen. The Arabs had chosen for their encampment a
secure place in the jungle at the northern foot of the mound,
and not far from the Tigris. A ditch, leading from the river,
nearly surrounded the tents, which were completely concealed
by the trees and shrubs. Abd'rubbou remained with me for
the night Whilst I was examining the ruins, he had been
riding to and fro, to find a convenient spot for his tents, and
grass for his cattle. Such is the custom of the Arabs. When
the grass, within a certain distance of their encampment, has
been exhausted, they prepare to seek new pastures. The
Sheikhs, and the principal men of the tribe, mount their
mares, and ride backwards and forwards over tiie face of the
country, until they find herbage sufficient for the wants of
their flocks. Having fixed on a suitable spot, they return to
acquaint their followers with their success, and announce
their intention of moving thither on the following morning.
The Sheikh's tent is generally the first struck ; and the tribe,
if they feel inclined, follow his example. If any have cause
of complaint against their chief and wish to desert him, they
seize this occasion ; they leave their tents standing until die
others are gone, and then wander in another direction.
Abd'rubbou having, at length, found a convenient site on
* This statue is now in the British Museum.
XI.] A THUNDER STORM. 297
the banks of the river, to the south of the mound, marked
out a place for his tents, and sent a horseman to his tribe,
with orders for them to move to Kalah Sherghat on the
following morning. These preliminaries having been settled,
he adjourned to my tent to supper. It was cold and damp,
and the Arabs, collecting brushwood and trunks of trees^
made a great fire, which lighted up the recesses of the
jungle. As the night advanced, a violent storm broke over
us; the wind rose to a hurricane — the rain descended in
torrents — the thunder rolled in one long peal — and vivid
streams of lightning, almost incessant, showed the surround-
ing landscapfe. When the storm had abated, I walked to a
short distance from the tents to gaze upon the scene. The
huge fire we had kindled threw a lurid glare over the trees
around our encampment. The great mound could be dis-
tinguished through the gloom, rising like a distant mountain
against the dark sky. From all sides came the melancholy
wail of the jackals, who had issued from their subterranean
dwellings in the ruins, as soon as the last gleam of twilight
was fading in the western horizon. The owl, perched on the
old masonry, occasionally sent forth its mournful note. The
shrill laugh of the Arabs would sometimes rise above the cry
of the jackal. Then all earthly noises were buned in the
deep roll of the distant thunder. It was desolation such as
those alone who have witnessed such scenes can know —
desolation greater than the desolation of the sandy wastes of
Africa, for there was the wreck of man, as well as that of
nature.
Soon after sunrise, on the following morning, stragglers on
horseback from Abd'rubbou's late encampment began to
arrive. They were soon followed by the main body of the
tribe. Long lines of camels, sheep, laden donkeys, men,
women, and children, such as I have described in the account
of my visit to Sofuk, covered the small plain, near the banks
of the river. A scene of activity and bustle ensued. Every
one appeared desirous to outdo his neighbour in vehemence
of shouting and violence of action. A stranger would have
fancied that there was one general quarrel ; in which, out of
several hundred men and women concerned, no two persons
298 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
took the same si(ie of the question. Every one seemed to
differ from every one else. All this confusion, however, was
but the result of a friendly debate on the site of the respective
tents; and when the matter had been settied to the general
satisfaction, without recourse to any more violent measures
than mere yelling, each family conmienced raising their
temporary abode. The camels being made to kneel down,
and the donkeys to stop in the place fixed upon, their loads
were rolled off their backs. The women next spread the
black goat-hair canvass. The men rushed about widi wooden
mallets to drive in the stakes and pegs ; and in a few minutes
the dwellings, which were to afford them shelter, until they
needed shelter no longer, and under which they had lived
from their birth upwards, were complete. The women and
girls were then sent forth to fetch water, or to collect brush-
wood and dry twigs for fire. The men, leaving all household
matters to their wives and daughters, assembled in the tent
of the Sheikh; and crouching in a circle round the entire
trunk of an old tree, which was soon enveloped in flames,
they prepared to pass the rest of the day in that desultory
small talk, relating to stolen sheep, stray donkeys, or suc-
cessfiil robberies, which fills up the leisure of an .^b, unless
he be better employed in plundering or in war.
Leaving Abd'rubbou and his Arabs to pitch their tents'
and settle their domestic matters, I walked to the mound.
The trenches dug by the workmen around the sitting figure
were almost sufficiently extensive to prove that no other
remains of building existed in its immediate vicinity. Had
not the figure been in an upright position, I should have con-
cluded, at once, that it had been brought from elsewhere ; as
I could not find traces of pavement, nor any fragments of
sculpture or hewn stone, near it Removing the workmen,
therefore, from this part of the mound, I divided them into
small parties, and employed them in making experiments in
different directions. Wherever trenches were opened, remains
of the Assyrian period were found, but only in fi:agments ;
such as bits of basalt, with small figures in relief, portions of
slabs bearing cuneiform inscriptions, and bricks similarly in-
scribed. Many tombs were also discovered. Like those
XL] TOMBS AT KALAH SHERGHAT 299
of Nimroud, they belonged to a period long subsequent to
the destruction of the Assyrian edifices, and were in the rub-
bish and earth which had accumulated above them. The
sarcophagi resembled those I have already described — large
cases of baked clay, some square, others in the form of a dish-
cover : as at Nimroud, they were all much too small to hold
a human body stretched out at full length. That the bodies
had not been burned, was proved by the bones being found
entire. In the sarcophagi were found numerous small vases,
metal ornaments, and a copper cup, resembling in shape and
in the embossed designs one held by the king, in a bas-relief
from the N.W. palace of Nimroud.*
Above these ancient tombs were graves of more recent
date ; some of them, indeed, belonging to the tribes which
had, but a few days before, encamped amongst the ruins.t
The tenant of one had been removed from his last resting-
place by the hungry hyenas and jackals, who haunt these
depositories of the dead. The rude casing of stones, form-
ing the interior of an Arab grave, had been opened; and the
bones and skull, still clothed with shreds of flesh, were scat-
tered around.
Although I spent two days at Kalah Sherghat I was unable
to discover the platform of sun-dried bricks upon which the
edifice, now in ruins, and covered with earth, must originally
have been built. Remains of walls were found in abundance ;
but they were evidently of a more recent period than the
Assyrian building, to which the inscribed bricks and the
fragments of sculptured stone belonged. The ruins were
consequently not thoroughly explored. I found no fragments
of the alabaster or Mosul marble, so generally employed in
the palaces to the north of Kalah Sherghat Unbaked bricks
alone may have been used in the edifice ; and if so, the walls
* This cup was taken out entire, but was unfortunately broken by the
man who was employed to carry it to Mosul.
t The Arabs generally seek some elevated spot to bury their dead.
The artificial mounds, abounding in Mesopotamia and Assyria, are
usually chosen for the purpose, and there is scarcely one whose sum-
mit is not covered with Arab graves. On this account I frequently
experienced great diflSoilty whilst excavating, and was compelled to leave
unexamined one or two ruins.
300 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
built with them could no longer, without very careful ex-
amination, be distinguished from the soil in which they are
buried.
The Tigris has been gradually encroaching upon the ruins,
and is undermining and wearing away the mound, a large
part of which has already been carried away by the river.
Large masses of earth are continually falling into the stream,
especially during the floods, leaving exposed to view vases,
sarcophagi, and remains of building. Along the banks of the
river, several shafts of circular brick masonry, like wells, had
been thus uncovered- At the time of my first visit, we ob-
served similar wells, and were at a loss to account for their
use. I now opened two or three of thenL They were filled
with earth, mixed w4th human bones and fragments of \'ases
and pottery;* which may have been originally deposited
there, or may have fallen in from above with the rubbish.
It is possible that these wells may have been constructed, at
a very early period, for purposes of irrigation, or to supply
water to the inhabitants of tie city.
The principal ruin at Kalah Sherghat, like those of Nim-
roud, Khorsabad, and other ancient Assyrian sites, is a large
square mound, siumoimted by a cone or pyramid, which
rises nearly in the centre of the north side of the great plat-
form. Immediately below it, and forming a facing to the
mound, is a wall of well-hewn dressed stones, carefiiUy fitted
together, and bevelled. The battlements, which stiU exist,
are cut into gradines, or steps, and resemble those of castles
and towers represented in the Nimroud sculptures. The
wall is therefore evidently Assyrian.f It is not improbable
that much of the masonry, still visible on the summit of the
mound, may be the remains of an Arab fort. Long lines erf"
smaller mounds or ramparts stretching from the great mound
form a quadrangle, and are the remains of the walls which
once enclosed the city.
The mound of Kalah Sherghat is one of the largest with
* I foand similar wells, containing human remains and potteiy,
amongst the niins on the banks of the rivers of Susiana.
+ A similar wall was subsequently discovered in the great mound of
Nimroud. (See * Nineveh and Babylon,' p. 37.)
XL] LEA VE KALAH SHERGHA T, 301
which I am acquainted in Assyria. I was unable to mea-
sure it accurately during this visit; but when on the spot
some years before with Mr. Ains worth, we carefully paced
round it; and the result, according to that gentleman's cal-
culation, gave a circumference of 4685 yards.* A part of
it, however, is not artificial. Irregularities in the soil, and
natural eminences, have been united into one great platform
by earth and layers of sun-dried bricks. It is, nevertheless,
a stupendous structure. In height it is unequal ; to the south
it slopes off nearly to the level of the plain, whilst to the
north, where it is most lofty, its sides are perpendicular, in
some places rising to nearly one hundred feet.
I will not attempt to connect, without better materials than
we now possess, the ruins of Kalah Sherghat with any ancient
city whose name occurs in the Old Testament, or has been
preserved by ancient geographers. That it was one of the
oldest cities of Assyria, is proved by the identification of the
name of the king found on its monuments and bricks, with
that on the centre bulls and obelisk of Nimroud.f
Having given directions to Mansour for the continuation
of the excavations, I prepared to return to Mosul. Abd'rub-
bou offered to accompany me ; and as the desert between
Kalah Sherghat and Hammum Ali was infested by roving
parties of the Shammar and Aneyza Arabs, I deemed it
prudent to accept his escort. He chose eight horsemen
from his tribe, and we started together for the desert.
We slept the first night at the tents of a Seyyid, or de-
scendant of the Prophet, of some repute for sanctity, and for
the miraculous cure of diseases, which he effects by merely
tQuching the patient The Arabs were fully persuaded of
the existence of his healing power; but I never saw anyone
who even pretended to have been cured by it, although there
was certainly no lack of subjects for the Seyyid to practise
upon. The old gentleman's daughter, a dark, handsome girl,
* Journal of the Royal Geographical Society, vol. xi. p. 5.
t Chap. X. II. Sir H. Rawlinsonis of opinion that Kalah Sherghat
represents a city called Asshur, which was the primitive capital of Assjoia,
founded many centuries before Nineveh. But, as far as I can judge, this
theory is not founded upon any reliable evidence.
302 XJXEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
was claimed by a Sheikh of the Jeboors, to wfaom, accoi di i^
to some accounts, she had been betrothed. The greater yaat
of the night was spent in quarrelling and wrangling upon tlds
subject The Sejyid resolutely denied the contract, on the
mere plea that one of such holy descent could not be united
to a man in whose veins the blood of the Prophet did not
flow. Abd'rubbou and his ^ends, on the odier hand, as
stoutly contended for the claims of the lover, not treatiiig, I
thou^t, so great a saint with a proper d^ree of ie^)ect.
Although my tent was pitched at some distance from the
assembly, the discordant voices, all joining at the same time
in the most violent discussion, kept me awake until past
midnight Suddenly the disputants appeared to have ta&ed
themselves out, and there was a lulL Vainly flattering mysdf
that they had sunk into sleep, I prepared to follow their ex-
ample. But I had scarcely closed my eyes, when I was roused
by a fresh outbreak of noises. An Arab had suddenly arrived
from the banks of the Khabour — the old pasture grounds of
the tribe: he was overwhelmed with a thousand questions,
and the news he brought of struggles between the Aneyza
and the Asai, and the defeat of the former enemies o( the
Jebours, led to continual bursts of enthusiasm, and to <Hie or
two attempts to raise a general shouting of the war-cry. Tlras
they passed the night to my great discomfort
On the morrow I started early with Abd'rubbou and his
horsemen. We struck directly across the desert, leaving my
servants and baggage to follow leisurely along the banks of
the river, by a more circuitous but safer road When we were
within four or five miles of that part of the Tigris at which a
rafr was waiting to take me across, I requested the Sheikh to
return, as there appeared to be no fiirther need of an escort
Mr. Hormuzd Rassam and myself galloped over the plain.
We disturbed, as we rode along, a few herds of gazelles, and
a sohtary wolf or jackal; but we saw no human beings.
Abd'rubbou and his Arabs, however, had scarcely left us
when they observed a party of horsemen in the distance,
whom they mistook for men of their own tribe returning from
Mosul It was not until they drew ni^ that they discovered
their mistake. The horsemen were plunderers firom the
XL] DEPARTURE OF ABURUBBOU. 303
Aneyza. The numbers were pretty equal. A fight ensued,
in which two men on the side of the enemy, and one of the
Jebours, were killed; but the Aneyza were defeated, and
Abd'rubbou carried off in triumph a couple of mares.
A few days after my return to Nimroud, the Jebours were
compelled, by want of pasturage, to leave the neighbourhood
of Kalah Sherghat. The whole desert, as well as the jungle
on the banks of the river, which generally supplied, even in
the driest seasons, a little grass to the flocks, having been
completely dried up, Abd'rubbou, with his tribe, moved to the
north of Mesopotamia. A few of his people came to Nim-
roud to culriyate millet; but the Sheikh himself, with the
greater part of his followers, left the district of Mosul alto-
gether, migrating to the sources of the Khabour and to the
Nisibin branch of that river — the ancient Mygdonius. The
desert to the south of Mosul was now only frequented by
wandering parties of plunderers, and the position of my work-
men at Kalah Sherghat became daily more insecure. After
they had been once or twice exposed to molestation from
the Aneyza and the Obeid, I found it necessary to withdraw
them — had I not, they would probably have run away of
themselves. I renounced the further examination of these
ruins with regret, as they had not been properly explored ;
and I have little doubt, firom the fragments discovered, that
many objects of interest, if not sculptured slabs, exist in the
mound.*
* Further excavations were subsequently made in the mound of
Kalah Sherghat by myself (see * Nineveh and Babylon, ' chap. xiii. ), and by
Mr. Hormuzd Rassam. The principal discoveries made there consisted
of clay tablets and cylinders with inscriptions containing the annals of a
king, whose name is believed to be Tiglath-pileser, and who is supposed
to &ve reigned about 1130 B. c.
3Q4 XIXEIE// AXD ITS RFMA/XS, ^CHAf,
CHAPTER XII.
Artyicia/ irn^atk*m c/ Asri-rij — Wjat of rjdm — PtifitmaH^ms ^nr ikt
mm^KvU »y" a tctH^a/ r*// cmj /a»j» — TJU *\?jr/ — LtKKri^g- tJk^ fina^r«f
^mJJ — /fy^ roK^'^si/ rr^^m tki r:t:ns — Ejr^i^i-m^f <-/ fir AniAf — J^iwmfcm^
{ftii hen — ^a/is/cr tht ir^nsf^^rt o'Vi^ aW/Att^ A» Sufrojk — Etm-
Ktriixts^m rftJkf ik>m anJ bmil — cAw^rx' drsctif4:*m eftkr rmhts.
Assyria Proper, like Babylonia, owed its ancient ferdlinr as
much to artificial irrigation, as to the rains which fall durii^
the winter and early spring. The Tigris and Euphrates do
not, like the Nile, overflow their banks and deposit a rkh
manure over the face of the land. They rise sufficiently at
the time of the melting of the snows in the Armenian inouii^
tains, to fill the small watercourses led firom them into the
adjacent countn- ; but these canals are above the level of the
stream when the ri\*ers are low in summer and autumn, and
then water can only be raised by artificial means.
The ^-ast networks of canals and watercourses dug in the
prosperous period of the Ass\Tian empire, and used for many
centuries by the mhabitants of the countrj- — even afti»' the
Arab in\-asion — have long since been choked up, and are
now useless. I have already described the rude machines
constructed on the banks of the Tigris for the puipose of
irrigation. Even these are scarce, for the government, or
rather the local authorities, levy a considerable tax upon them.
and the simple buckets of the Arabs become, in many cases,
the pretence for exaction and oppression. Few being, conse-
quently, bold enough to make use of them, the lands near
the rivers, as well as the interior of the country, are entirely
dependent for their fertiUty upon the winter rains, which are,
in average years, amply sufficient to ensure the most plentiful
crops; such being the richness of the soil, that even a few
XII.] FERTILITY OF ASSYRIA. 305
heavy showers in winter and spring, at the time of sowing the
seed, and when the corn is about a foot above the ground,
are all that is required to ensure a good harvest
Herodotus* describes the extreme fertility of Assyria, and
its abundant harvests of com, the seed producing two and
three hundredfold. The blades of wheat and barley, he de-
clares, grew to full four fingers in breadth; and such was the
general richness of Babylonia, that it supplied the Persian
king and his vast army with subsistence for four months in
the year, while the rest of the Persian dominions furnished
provisions for the other eight But in his day the Assyrians
depended as much upon artificial irrigation as upon the
periodical rains. They were skilful in constructing machines
for raising water, and their vast system of canals was as re-
markable as a monument of well-directed labour, as for the
knowledge of hydraulics which it displayed. In the hills, the
vine, olive, and fig tree were cultivated anciently as they are
now ; and Rabshakeh, to tempt the Jews, describes Assyria
as * a land of com and wine, a land of bread and vineyards,
a land of olive-oil and of honey. *t
It sometimes happens that the season passes without rain,
and a drought entailing great misery and suffering upon the
country is the result Such was the case this year. During
the winter and spring no water fell. The inhabitants of the
villages, who had been induced to return by the improved
administration and conciliatory measures of the late Pasha,
had put their whole stock of wheat and barley into the ground.
They now looked in despair upon the cloudless sky. I
watched the young grass as it stmggled to break through the
parched earth ; but it was burnt up almost at its birth. Some-
times a distant cloud hanging over tlie solitary hill of Arbela,
or rising from the desert in the far west, led to hopes, and a
few drops of rain gave rise to general rejoicings. The Arabs
would then form a dance, and raise songs and shouts, the
women joining with the shrill tahlehl. But disappointment
* Lib. i. c. 192 and 193.
+ 2 Kings, xviii. 32. On a black stone, discovered, I believe, amongst
the ruins of Nineveh and now in the British Museum, a plough is repre-
sented, nearly resembling that still in use in the country.
X
3o6 NLXEVEH A\D ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
always ensued. The clouds passed over, and the same pure
blue sky was above us. To me the total absence of verdure
in spring was very painful. For months my eye had scarcely
rested upon a green thing; and that imchanging yellow,
barren waste has a depressing effect upon the spirits. The
Jaifi which the year before had been a flower garden and had
teemed with life, was now as naked and bare as the desert in
the midst of summer. I had been looking forward to the
return of the grass to encamp outside the village, and had
meditated many excursions to ancient ruins in the desert and
the mountains ; but I was doomed to disappointment like the
rest.
The Pasha issued orders that Christians, as well as Mussul-
mans, should join in a general fast and in prayers for rain.
Supplications were offered up in the churches and mosques.
The Mohammedans held a kind of three days' Ramazan,
starving themselves during the day, and feasting during the
night The Christians abstained from meat for the same
length of time. If a cloud were seen on the horizon, the in-
habitants of the villages, headed by their mullahs, would
immediately walk into the open country to chant prayers and
verses from the Koran. Sheikhs — crazy ascetics who wan-
dered over the country, either half clothed in the skins of
lions or gazelles, or stark naked — burnt themselves with hot
iron, and ran shouting about the streets of Mosul Even a
kind of necromancy was not neglected, and the Cadi and the
Turkish authorities had recourse to all manner of m)rsterious
incantations, which were pronounced to have been success-
ful in other parts of the Sultan's dominions on similar occa-
sions.
Still there was no rain, and a famine appeared to be in-
evitable. It was known, however, that there were abundant
supplies of com in the granaries of the principal families of
Mosul ; and the fact having been brought to the notice of the
Pasha, he at once ordered the stores to be opened, and their
contents to be offered for sale in the market at moderate
prices. As usual, the orders were given to the very persons
who were speculating upon the necessities and sufferings of
the poor and needy — to the Cadi, the Mufti, and the head
XII.] MOVING WINGED BULL, 307
people of the town. They proceeded to obey them with great
zeal and punctuality, but somehow or another overlooked
their own stores and those of their friends, and ransacked the
houses of the rest of the inhabitants. In a few days, conse-
quently, those who had saved up a little grain for their own
immediate wants, were added to the number of the starving ;
and the misery of the town was increased.
The Bedouins, who are dependent upon the village for
supplies, now also began to feel the effects of the failure of
the crops, and were preparing to make up for their sufferings
by plundering the caravans of merchants, and the peaceable
inhabitants of the districts within reach of the desert Al-
though the springliad already commenced, the Shammar and
other formidable tribes had not yet encamped in the vicinity
of Mosul ; still casual plundering parties had made their ap-
pearance among the villages, and it was predicted that, as
soon as their tents were pitched nearer the town, the country
without the walls would be not only very unsafe, but almost
uninhabitable.
These circumstances induced me to undertake the removal
of the larger sculptures as early as possible. I determined to
embark them for Busrah in the month of March or April,
foreseeing that as soon as the Bedouins had moved north-
wards from Babylonia, and had commenced their plundering
expeditions in the vicinity of Mosul, I should be compelled
to leave Nimroud.
The Trustees of the British Museum had not then con-
templated the removal of either of the winged human-headed
bulls or lions, and I had at first believed that, with the means
at my disposal, it would have been useless to attempt it. I
was directed to leave them, as they had been discovered,
until some favourable opportunity of moving them entire
might occur; and to heap earth over them to preserve them
from wanton injury by the Arabs, after the excavations had
been brought to an end. Being loth, however, to abandon
all these fine specimens of Assyrian sculpture, I resolved
upon attempting the removal and embarkation of two of the
smallest and best preserved, and fixed upon a lion and a bull
from the great central hall. Thirteen pairs of these gigantic
3o8 \L\EVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
sculptures, and several fragments of others, had been dis-
covered; but many of them were too much injured to be
worth sending to England. I had wished to secure the lions
forming the grand entrance to the principal hall of the N. W.
palace ; the finest specimens of Assyrian sculpture yet dis-
covered in the ruins. But after some deliberation I deter-
mined to leave them for the present; as, fi-om their size, the
expenses attending their conveyance to the river, and to
Busrah and England, would have been greater than I could
meet with the means at my disposal.
I formed various plans for lowering the smaller lion and
bull, dragging them to the river, and placing them upon rafts.
Each step had its difficulties, and a variety of original sug-
gestions were made by my workmen, and by the good people
of Mosul. At last I resolved upon constructing a cart suffi-
ciently strong to bear the sculptures. As no wood but poplar
could be procured in the town, a carpenter was sent to the
mountains with directions to fell the largest mulberry tree, or
any tree of equally compact grain, he could find ; and to bring
back, with him beams of it, and thick slices from the trunk.
By the month of March this wood was ready. I purchased
from the dragoman of the French Consulate a pair of strong
iron axles, which had been used by M. Botta in moving
sculptures from Khorsabad. Each wheel was formed of three
solid pieces of wood, nearly a foot thick, bound together by
iron hoops. Across the axles were laid three beams, and
above them several cross-beams. A pole was fixed to one
axle, to which were also attached iron rings for ropes, to
'enable men, as well as buffaloes, to draw the cart The
wheels were provided with hooks for the same purpose.
Simple and rude as this cart was, it became an object of won-
der in the town, as carts are unknown in this part of Turkey.
Crowds came to look at it, as it stood in the yard of the Vice-
consuFs khan ; and the Pasha's topjis, or artilleiy-men, who,
from their acquaintance with the mysteries of gun carriages,
were looked up to as authorities on such matters, daily de-
claimed on the properties and use of this vehicle, and of carts
in general, to a large circle of curious and attentive listeners.
As long as the cart was in Mosul, it was examined by every
XII.] MOVING WINGED BULL, 309
stranger who visited the town. But when the news spread
that it was about to leave the gates, and to be drawn over the
bridge, the business of the place was completely suspended.
The secretaries and scribes of the Pasha left their divans ; the
guards their posts ; the bazaars were deserted ; and half the
population assembled on the banks of the river to witness
the manoeuvres of the cart, which was forced over the rotten
bridge of boats by a pair of buffaloes, and a crowd of Chal-
daeans and shouting Arabs.*
To lessen the weight of the lion and bull, without in any
w^ interfering with the sculpture, I reduced the thickness
and considerably diminished the bulk of the slabs, by cutting
away as much as possible from the back, which, being placed
against a wall of sun-dried bricks, was never meant to be seen.
As, in order to move these sculptures at all, I had to choose
between this plan and that of sawing them into several pieces,
I did not hesitate to adopt it
To enable me to move the bull from the ruins, and to place
it on the cart in the plain below, a trench or road nearly two
hundred feet long, about fifteen feet wide, and, in some places,
twenty feet deep, was cut from the entrance, in which stood
the sculpture, to the edge of the mound. As I had not suffi-
cient mechanical power at command to raise the bull out of
the trenches, like the smaller bas-reliefs, this road was neces-
sary. It was a tedious undertaking, as a very large accumu-
lation of earth had to be removed. About fifty Arabs and
Nestorians were employed in the work.
On digging this trench it was found that a chamber had
once' existed to the west of the great hall. The seulpttlfed
slabs had been destroyed or carried away ; but part of the
walls of unbaked bricks could still be traced. The only bas-
relief discovered was lying flat on the pavement, where it
* The bridge of Mosul consists of a number of rude boats bound?
together by iron chains. Planks are laid from boat to boat, and the
whole is covered with earth. During the spring floods this frail bridge
would be unable to resist the force of the stream ; the chains holding it
on one side of the river are then loosened, and it swings round. All
communication between the two banks of the river is thus cut off, and a
ferry is established until the floods subside, and the bridge can be re-
placed.
3IO \L\EVEH AXD ITS Ii£MAL\'S, [Chap, XIL
had e\idently been left when the adjoining slabs were re-
moved. It was the small relief of the lion-hunt ik>w in die
British Museum, and remarkable for its finish, the el^anoe
of the ornaments, and the spirit of the design. It resembles,
in its st}'le and details, the battle-scene first discovered in the
S. W. palace, and I am inclined to believe that they both
belonged to this ruined chamber ; in which, perhaps, the bas-
reliefs were more elaborate and more highly finished than in
any other part of the building. The work of dififerent artists
may be plainly traced in the Ass}Tian sculptures. Frequently
when the outline is spirited and correct, and the omaroents
designed with considerable taste, the execution is defective
or coarse; evidentiy shoi^ing, that, whilst the subject was
designed by a master, the car\'ing of the stone had been en-
trusted to an inferior hand. In many bas-re]ie& some parts
are more highly finished than others, as if they had been
retouched by a more experienced sculptor. The figures of
the enemy are generally rudely executed and left unfinished,
to show probably that, being those of the conquered or cap-
tive race, they were unworthy the care of the artist. It is
rare to find an entire bas-relief equally well executed and
finished in all its parts. The most perfect hitherto discovered
in Assyria, are probably the lion hunt from the principal
chamber, the hon-hunt just described, and the large group
of the king sitting on his throne, in the midst of his attendants
and i^inged figures, all now placed in the British Museum.*
WTiilst making this trench, I also discovered, about three
feet beneath the pavement, a drain, which appeared to com-
municate \iith others pre\dously opened in different parts of
the building. It was probably the main sewer, through which
all the minor watercourses were discharged. It was built of
baked bricks, and covered in with large slabs and tiles.
As the bull vras to be lowered, so that the unsculptured
side of the slab should be placed on rollers, I removed the
walls behind it to form a clear space large enough to recei\-e
* Some of the bas-reliefs subsequendy discovered at Koayunjik, and
especially those representing the lion-hunts now in the basonent txmib
of the British Museam, are equaUy remarkable for the extrmorxliiuuv
minuteness and finish of even the smallest details.
312 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [CHAP.
it when prostrate, and to leave room for the workmen to pass
on all sides of it The principal diflSculty was of couisc
to lower it; when once on the ground, or on rollers, it
could be dragged forwards by the united force of a number
of men; but, during its descent, it could only be sustained
by ropes. If these ropes, not strong enough to bear die
weight, chanced to give way, the sculpture would be precipi-
tated to the ground, and would, probably, be broken in the
fall. The few ropes I possessed had been sent to me, across
the desert, from Aleppo; but they were small and weaL
From Baghdad I had obtained a thick hawser, made of the
filwes of the palm. In addition I had been fUmished with
two pairs of blocks, and a pair of jack-screws belonging to
the steamers of the Euphrates expedition. These were all
the means at my command for moving the bull and lion.
The sculptures were wrapped in mats and felts, to preserve
them, as far as possible, from injury in case of a fall, and to
prevent the ropes chipping or rubbing them.
The bull was ready to be moved by the i8th of March.
It had been completely isolated, and was now only supported
by beams resting against the opposite wall of earth. Amongst
the wood obtained from the mountains were several thick
rollers. These were placed upon sleepers, formed of the
trunks of poplar trees, well greased and laid on the ground
parallel to the sculpture. The bull was to be lowered upon
these rollers. A deep trench had been cut behind the second
bull, completely across the wall, and, consequently, extending
from chamber to chamber. Ropes coiled round this mass
of earth served to hold two blocks, two others being attached
to ropes wound round the bull to be moved. The ropes, by
which the sculpture was to be lowered, were passed through
these blocks ; the ends, or falls 6f the tackle, as they are
technically called, being held by the Arabs. The cable which
was first passed through the trench, and then round the
sculpture, was to be gradually slackened by two bodies of
men, one at each end. Several of the strongest Chaldaeans
placed thick beams against the back of the bull, and were
directed to use them in checking it in its descent.*
* See frontispiece.
XII.] REMOVAL OF WINGED BULL, 313
My own people were reinforced by a large number of the
Abou-Salman. I had invited Sheikh Abd-ur-rahman to be
present, and he came attended by a body of horsemen. The
inhabitants of Naifa and Nimroud, having volunteered to
assist on the occasion, were placed amongst my Arabs. The
workmen, except the Chaldaeans who supported the beams,
were divided into four parties, two in front of the bull, to
hold the ropes, and two at the ends of the cable. They we're
directed to slack off gradually as the sculpture descended.
The men being ready, and all my preparations complete,
I stationed myself on the top of the high bank of earth over
the second bull, and ordered the wedges to be struck out
from under the sculpture to be moved. Still, however, it re-
mained firmly in its place. A rope having been passed round
it, six or seven men easily tilted it over. The thick, ill-made
cable stretched with the strain, and almost buried itself in the
earth round which it was coiled. The ropes held well. The
bull descended gradually, the Chaldaeans propping it up with
the beams. It was a moment of great anxiety. The drums
and shrill pipes of the Kurdish musicians increased the din
and confusion caused by the war-cry of the Arabs, who were
half frantic with excitement. They had thrown off nearly all
their garments ; their long hair floated in the wind ; and they
indulged in the wildest postures and gesticulation^ as they
clung to the ropes. The women had congregated on the
sides of the trenches, and by their incessant screams, and by
the ear-piercing tahlehl, added to the enthusiasm of the men.
The bull once in motion, it was no longer possible to obtain
a hearing. The loudest cries I could produce were lost in
the crash of discordant sounds. Neither the hippopotamus
hide whips of the Cawasses, nor the bricks and clods of earth
with which I endeavoured to draw attention from some of
the most noisy of the group, were of any avail. Away went
the bull, steady enough as long as supported by the props
behind; but as it came nearer to the rollers, the beams could
no longer be used. The cable and ropes stretched more
and more. Dry from the climate, as they felt the strain, they
creaked and threw out dust Water was thrown over them,
but in vain, for they all broke together when the sculpture
314 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chaf.
was ^^-ithin four or five feet of the rollers. The bull fell to
the ground. Those who held the ropes, thus suddenly re-
leased, followed its example, and were rolling one over the
other, in the dust A sudden silence succeeded to the clamour.
I rushed into the trenches, prepared to find the bull in many
pieces. It would be difficult to describe my satisfaction, when
I saw it Ipng precisely where I had wished to place it, and
unbroken ! The Arabs no sooner got on their legs again,
than, seeing that the sculpture was uninjured and safely
placed on the rollers, they darted out of the trenches, and,
seizing by the hands the women who were looking on, formed
a large circle, and, yelling their war-cry with redoubled energy,
commenced a most mad dance. The musicians exerted them-
selves to the utmost; but their music was drowned by the
cries of the dancers. Even Abd-ur-rahman shared in the
excitement, and, throwing his cloak to one of his attendants,
insisted upon leading off the debke. It would have been use-
less to endeavoiu: to put any check upon these proceedings.
I preferred allowing the men to wear themselves out — a re-
sult which, in consequence of the amount of exertion and
energy displayed by limbs and throat, was not long in taking
place.
I now prepared, with the aid of Behnan, the Bairakdar, and
the Nestorians, to move the bull into the long trench which
led to the edge of the mound. The rollers were in good
order; and as soon as the ex6itement of the Arabs had suflt-
ciently abated to enable them to resume work, the sculpture
was diragged out of its place by ropes.
Sleepers were laid to the end of the trench, and fresh rollers
were placed under the bull as it was pulled forwards by cables,
to which were fixed the tackles held by logs buried in the
earth, on the edge of the mound. The sun was going down
as these preparations were completed. I deferred any fur-
ther labour to the morrow. The Arabs dressed themselves ;
and, placing the musicians at their head, marched towards
the village, singing their war-songs, occasionally raising a wild
yell, throwing their lances into the air, and flourishing their
swords and shields over their heads.
I rode back with Abd-ur-rahman. Schloss and his horse-
XII.] ABD'UR'RAHMAN'S REFLECTIONS. 315
men galloped round us, playing the jerrid, and bringing the
ends of their lances into a proximity with my head and body
which was far from comfortable; for it was evident enough
that had the mares refused to fall almost instantaneously back
on their haunches, or had they stumbled, I should have been
transfixed on the spot. As the exhibition, however, was
meant as a compliment, and enabled the young warriors to
exhibit their prowess, and the admirable training of their
horses, I declared myself highly delighted, and bestowed
equal commendations on all parties.
The Arab Sheikh, his excitement once cooled down, gave
way to moral reflections. * Wonderful ! wonderful ! There
is surely no God but God, and Mohammed is his Prophet,'
exclaimed he, after a long pause. ' In the name of the Most
High, tell me, O Bey, what you are going to do with those
stones. So many thousands of purses spent upon such things !
Can it be, as you say, that your people learn wisdom from
them ; or is it, as his reverence the Cadi declares, that they
are to go to the palace of your Queen, who, with the rest of
the unbehevers, worships these idols % As for wisdom, these
figures will not teach you to make any better knives, or
scissors, or chintzes; and it is in the making of those things
that the English show their wisdom. But God is great ! God
is great ! Here are stones which h^ve been buried ever since
the time of the holy Noah — ^peace be with him ! Perhaps
they were under ground before the deluge. I have Hved on
these lands for years. My fatiier, and the father of my father,
pitched their tents here before me ; but they never heard of '
these figures. For twelve hundred years have the true be-
lievers (and, praise be to God ! all true wisdom is with them
alone) been settled in this country, and none of them ever
heard of a palace under ground. Neither did they who went
before them. But lo ! here comes a Frank from many days'
journey off, and he walks up to the very place, and he takes
% stick (illustrating the description at the same time with the
point of his spear), and makes a line here, and makes a line
there. Here, says he, is the palace ; there, says he, is the
gate ; and he shows us what has been all our lives beneath
our feet, without our having known anything about it Won-
Si6 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
derful ! wonderful ! Is it by books, is it by magiCy is it by
your prophets, that you have learnt these things % Speak, O
Bey ; tell me the secret of wisdontL*
The wonder of Abd-ur-rahman was certainly not without
cause, and his reflections were natural enough. Whilst riding
by his side I had been indulging in a reverie, not unlike his
own, which he suddenly interrupted by these exclamations.
Such thoughts crowded upon me day by day, as I looked
upon every newly discovered sculpture. A stranger laying
open monuments buried for more than twenty centuries, and
thus proving to those who dwelt around them, that much of
the civilisation and knowledge-of which we now boast, existed
amongst their forefathers when our * ancestors were yet un-
born,' was, in a manner, an acknowledgment of the debt
which the West owes to the East. It is, indeed, no small
matter of wonder, that far distant, and comparatively new,
nations should have preserved the only records of a people
once ruling over nearly half the globe ; and should now be
able to teach the descendants of that people, or those who
have taken their place, where their cities and monuments
once stood. There was more than enough to excite the
astonishment of Abd-ur-rahman, and I seized this opportunity
to give him a short lecture upon the advantages of civilisa-
tion and of knowledge. I will not pledge myself however,
that my endeavours were attended with as much success as
those of some may be who boast of their missions to the
East. All I could accomplish was, to give the Arab Sheikh
an exalted idea of the wisdom and power of the Franks ;
which was so far useful to me, that tiirough his means the
impression he had received was spread about the country,
and was not one of the least effective guarantees for the safety
of my property and person.
This night was, of course, looked upon as one of rejoicing.
Abd-urrahman and his brother dined with me; although,
had it not been for the honour and distinction conferred by
the privilege of using knives and forks, they would rather
have exercised their fingers with the crowds gathered round
the wooden platters in the court-yard. Sheep were as usual
killed, and boiled or roasted whole; they formed the es-
XII.] ' PROCESSION OF BULL. 317
sence of all entertainments and public festivities. They had
scarcely been devoured before dancing was commenced.
There were fortunately relays of musicians ; for no human
lungs, without frequent repose, could have furnished the re-
quisite amount of breath. When some of the dancers were
nearly falling from exhaustion, the ranks were recruiter by
others. And so the Arabs went on until dawn.* It was use-
less to preach moderation, or to entreat for quiet. Advice
and remonstrances were received with deafening shouts of
the war-cry, and outrageous antics as proofs of gratitude for
the entertainment, and of ability to resist fatigue.
After passing the night in this fashion, these extraordinary
beings, still singing and capering, started for the mound.
Everything had been prepared on the previous day for mov-
ing the bull, and the men had now only to haul on the ropes.
As the sculpture advanced, the rollers left behind were re-
moved to the front, and thus in a short time it reached the
end of the trench. There was little difficulty in dragging it
down the precipitous side of the mound. When it was with-
in three or four feet of the bottom, sufficient earth was re-
moved from beneath it to admit the cart, upon which the
bull itself was then lowered by still further digging away the
soil. It was soon ready to be dragged to the river. Buffaloes
were first harnessed to the yoke; but, although the men
pulled with ropes fastened to the rings attached to the wheels,
and to other parts of the cart, the animals, feeling the weight
behind them, refused to move. We were compelled, there-
fore, to take them out; and the Nestorians, in parties of
eight, lifted the pole by turns, whilst the Arabs, assisted by
the people of Naifa and Nimroud, dragged the cart The
procession was thus formed. I rode first, with the Bairakdar,
to point out the road. Then came the musicians, with their
drums and fifes, drumming and fifing with might and main.
The cart followed, dragged by about three hundred men, all
screeching at the top of their voices, and urged on by the
Cawasses and superintendents. The procession was closed
by the women, who kept up the enthusiasm of the Arabs by
their shrill cries. Abd-ur-rahman*s horsemen performed
3i8 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap. XII.
divers feats round the group, dashing backwards and for-
wards, and charging with their spears.
We advanced well enough, although the ground was very
heavy, until we reached the ruins of the former village of
Nimroud.* The villagers of Assyria dig deep pits in which
they store their com, barley, and straw for the autumn and
winter. These pits generally surround the villages. Being
only covered by a light framework of boughs and stakes,
plastered over with mud, they become, particularly when
half empty, a snare and a trap to the horseman, who, unless
guided by some one acquainted with the localities, is pretty
certain to find the hind legs of his horse on a level with its
ears, and himself suddenly sprawling in front. The corn-pits
around Nimroud had long since been emptied of their stores,
and had been concealed by the light sand and dust, which,
blown over the plain during summer, soon fill up every
hole and crevice. Although I had carefully examined the
ground before starting, one of these holes thus filled had
escaped my notice, and into it two wheels of the cart com-
pletely sank. The Arabs pulled and yelled in vain. The
ropes broke, but the wheels refused to move. We tried every
means to release them, but unsuccessfully. After working
until dusk, we were obliged to give up the attempt. I left
a party of Arabs to guard the cart and its contents, suspect-
ing that some adventurous Bedouins, attracted by the ropes,
and by the mats and felts, with which the sculpture was en-
veloped, might turn their steps towards the spot during the
night My suspicions did not prove unfounded; for I had
scarcely got into bed before the whole village was thrown
into commotion by the reports of fire-arms and the war-cry
of the Jebours. Hastening to the scene of action, I found
that a party of Arabs had fallen upon my workmen. They
were beaten off, leaving behind them, however, their mark ;
for a ball struck and indented the side of the bull. I was
anxious to learn who the authors of this wanton attack were,
and had organised a scheme for taking summary vengeance.
* The village was moved to its present site after the river had
gradually receded to the westward, as the inhabitants had been left at a
very inconvenient distance from water.
320 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
But they were discovered too late ; for, anticipating punish-
ment, they had struck their tents, and had moved off into
the desert.
Next morning we succeeded in clearing away the eaxth,
and in placing thick planks beneath tiie buried wheels.
After a few efforts the cart moved forwards amidst the shouts
of the Arabs ; who, as was invariably their custom on such
occasions, indulged, whilst pulling at the ropes, in the most
outrageous antics. The procession was formed as on the
previous day, and we dragged the bull triumphantly down to
within a few hundred yards of the river. Here the wheels
buried themselves in the sand, and it was night before we
contrived, with the aid of planks and by increased exertions,
to place the sculpture on the platform prepared to receive it,
and from which it was to slide down on the raft The tents
of the Arabs, who encamped near the river, were pitched
round the bull, until its companion, the lion, should be
brought down; and the two embarked together for Baghdad.
The night was passed in renewed rejoicings, to celebrate
the successful termination of our labours. On the following
morning I rode to Mosul, to enjoy a few days' rest after my
exertions.
The bull having thus been successfully transported to the
banks of the river, preparations were made, on my return
to Nimroud, for the removal of the second sculpture ; and
I ordered the trench, already opened for the passage of the
bull, to be continued to the entrance formed by the lions, or
about eighty feet to the north.
My arrangements were completed by the middle of April.
I determined to lower the lion at once on the cart, and not
to drag it out of the mound over the rollers. This sculpture,
during its descent, was supported in the same manner as the
bull had been; but, to avoid a second accident, I doubled
the number of ropes and the coils of the cable. Enough
earth was removed to bring the top of the cart to a level with
the bottom of the lion. Whilst clearing away the wall of un-
baked bricks, I discovered two alabaster tablets. On each
of them was the standard inscription, and they had evidently
been placed in the foundations of the palace ; probably, as
Xn.] RAFTS ON T/IE TIGRIS, ' 321
coins and similar tablets are now buried under the first stone
of an edifice, to record the period and object of its erection.
As the lion was cracked in more than one place, consider-
able care was required in lowering and moving it. Both,
however, were effected without accident. The Arabs as-
sembled as they had done at the removal of the bull. Abd-
ur-rahman and his horsemen rode over to the mound. We
had the same shouting and the same festivities. The lion
descended into the place I had prepared for it on the cart,
and was easily dragged out of the ruins. It was two days in
reaching the river, as the wheels sank more than once into
the loose soil, and were with difficulty extricated. It was,
however, at length placed by the side of the bull, on the
banks of the Tigris, ready to proceed to Busrah, where they
would be embarked for England when an opportunity oc-
curred, and as soon as I could make the necessary arrange-
ments for thfeir transport
The sculptures, which I had hitherto sent to Busrah, had
been floated down the river on rafts, as far only as Baghdad,
where they had been transferred to boats built by the natives
for the navigation of the lower part of the Tigris and Eu-
phrates. These vessels were much too small and weak to
carry either the lion or the bull; and, indeed, had they been
large and strong enough, it would have been difficult, if not
impossible, in the absence of proper machinery, to lift such
heavy masses into them. I resolved, therefore, to attempt
the navigation of the lower, as well as of the upper, part of
the river with rafts made of inflated skins ; and to send the
lion and bull, at once, upon them to Busrah. The raftmen of
Mosul, who are accustomed to descend the Tigris only as
far as Baghdad, but never venture further, declared the
scheme to be impracticable, and refused to attempt it. Even
my friends at Baghdad doubted of my success; principally,
however, on the ground that the prejudices and customs of
the natives were against me, — and every one knows how
difficult it is to prevail upon Easterns to undertake anything
in opposition to their established habits. Such has been
their nature for ages. As their fathers have done, so have
they done after them, forgetting or omitting many things, but
nir»i*r T«^i -^fn^ or jniiru vaic. As rxis !!iii«: wsn. ac insar-
reason wtrj crtey s&oaii noc cornrin* ri«*x voyi^e o^ BnyamT
Oc-ijcmcrioiis jr.:ip.z occnr in ±e upcer pan of rie ri!»eL
w5LJcfi xbonnAii bn r^it^<. rccksw ^^** sCsiUbws : buc zee in. z3k-
lowed wnere: :her± is c«*C"Ci of wxsar mc zochrng- m mxreiie
anjT^isG in muzj parts, izid ere ctie isceciis zeiriv jajlv
nnies ibo^e Btasali: mese wsce i±e only ttljuI ocfecriiaui^
xnd mej mtsreiy xKered rie zrm- Z2 be cm^iiOTOi iir ste
^kscenz .mil not res pocryabfTy.
Ir was rmpossLble bv die rcost ccairacir:^ :i::;i';?uems. ev^x
t&acm sipconDed by me erhircioii of x heap of ooin:^ a?
preiraii apQc rie rafnneiL of >IosdL co- canscrsa: sujci rr-r^ ;k
I r&qusr&L or co inuJerraJce tie vay:^^ I apciisai tmsRsoore:
to >Ll Hetniar: x Bcdsi rcerrrr;?.nt escabi^sceti a^ BazxrcLaL
2nd mcrougMT wdl acqccEiiKd wi±. the- cocncnr. azd thnjn^
ffjrrr IJQciLd a rntm of rfr:Tr CCT. wfeo <5ed2ir»i cizsseiif w rTTrTTur
to make t&e grear sacraice gjenssallT belrenid ti> be iir^-:I>n»^
in tbe atrampc He was cadebced in a coosbcerable soul of
mcoey. aiui b^jTrrg tfie owner cf a Lar^e- number of :>xfrr^ iucfw
T-u TTT«r ageless^ ne pretered a desperate Trnift^rrtltTrt^ ^^ q,*.
prospect <af a debtors pmocL*
Mnllitt AE — libr socfa. wk t&e r^^^mt* of mr caft-HaanxBnx3c
— at rirTT?;rtfT wT.T^-ft*- Ifrfg. appearance at - X Tn'm mf. f£e was
foCtwred bv a fetr fetrtr ^rrrlr^-f Arab^ hK assbstant rn tne oar-
soracTDoa ocratts: ami Eke tfeose who caEtaed on hjs trii5*
sxne two tfooasand years bedjn* by a cocpie ^ dockje^is
fadd wTtfii ^has ready for use. A genume naiDfe of Bar-
fed, fee feid csfEEnsced his in^enniDr m the ch^^
fo-diecomposcCDon of £cES§arnaencs. Thece cocdd njoc msvie
been aBBoreii^eaJieruusiiBQriireQf c^^
lyf- fes g.ni;-»ri. qt flowing ^wn^clioak. and TQiI'azninoos czr^aiz^
He begsn^ of coEuse. w^ a kwg: speech* protestnig. by me
Pl^opbcl. thist fae wExzLd ismdertake libr no €H3e dse oi chie
of cafis <aa. t^eT^c^ T&e: awmecs <itf^ ^lese- ixfbs xts astczIBr !Bffi[:«<£i. jt
JwOBBI^ aCbIIIISb 3BB. ***tf™'***'T
Xn.] MULLAH ALI, MY RAFT-CONTRACTOR, 323
world what he was going to do for me ; that he was my slave
and my sacrifice, and that the man who was not, was worse
than an infidel. I cut him short in this complimentary dis-
course. He then, as is usual in such transactions, began to
make excuses, to increase his demands, and throw difficulties
in the way. On these points I declined all discussion, direct-
ing Ibrahim Agha to give him an insight into my way of
doing business, to recommend him to resign himself to his
fate, as the contract had been signed, and to hint that he
was now in the power of an authority from which there was
no appeal.
Mullah Ali made many vain efforts to amend the condi-
tions of his contract, and to induce, on my part, a fuller ap-
preciation of his merits. He expected that these endeavours
might, at least, lead to an additional amount of bakshish.
At last he resigned himself to his fate, and slowly worked,
with his assistant, at the binding together of beams and logs
of wood with willow twigs to form a framework for a raft.
There were still some difficulties and obstacles to be sur-
mounted. The man of Baghdad had his own opinions on
the building of rafts in general, founded upon immemorial
custom and the traditions of the country. I had my theories,
which could not be supported by equally substantial argu-
ments. Consequently, he, who had all the proof on his side,
may not have been wrong in declaring against any method,
in favour of which I could produce no better evidence than
my own will. But, like many other injured men, he fell' a
victim to the * droit du plus fort,' and had to sacrifice, at
once, prejudice and habit.
I did not doubt that the skins, once blown up, would sup-
port the sculptures without difficulty as far as Baghdad, a
voyage of eight or ten days under favourable circumstances.
But there they would require to be opened and refilled, or
they would scarcely sustain so heavy a weight during the
longer voyage to Busrah. However carefully the skins are
filled, the air gradually escapes, and rafts, bearing merchan-
dise, are generally detained several times during their descent,
to enable the raftmen to examine and inflate the skins.
It may interest the reader to know how these rafts, which
Y 2
324 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
have probably been for ages the only means of traffic on the
upper parts of the rivers of Mesopotamia, are constructed.
The skins of full-grown sheep and goats, taken off with as
few incisions as possible, are dried, prepared, and then sewn
up, one aperture being left at the neck, through which they
are inflated. A framework of poplar beams, branches of trees,
and reeds, having been constructed of the size of the intended
raft, the skins are tied to it by osier twigs. The raft is then
complete, and is moved to the water and launched. Care is
taken to place the skins with their mouths upwards, that, in
case any should burst or require refilling, they can be easily
reached. Upon the framework of wood are piled bales of
goods, and property belonging to merchants and travellers.
When persons of rank or wealth descend the river, small huts
are constructed for them on the raft by covering a common
wooden takht, or bedstead of the country, with a hood formed
of reeds and lined with felt. The poorer passengers seek
shade or warmth, by burying themselves amongst the bales
and other cargo, and sit patiently, almost in one position,
until they reach their destination. They carry with them an
earthen mangal^ or chafing-dish, containing a charcoal fire,
which serves to light their pipes, and to cook their coffee
and food. The only real danger to be apprehended on the
river is from the Arabs; who, when the country is in a dis-
turbed state, invariably attack and pillage the rafts.
The progress is, of com^e, very slow, except during the
floods, when the rafts are carried along rapidly by the swollen
stream. The raftmen impel and guide them with long poles,
to the end of* which are fastened a few pieces of spUt cane.*
They skilfully avoid the rapids ; and, seated on the bales of
goods, row continually, even in the hottest sun. They will
seldom travel after dark before reaching Tekrit, on account
of the rocks and shoals, which occur in the upper part of the
river; but when they have passed that place, they resign
themselves, night and day, to the sluggish stream. During
the floods in the spring, or after heavy rains, small rafts may
float firom Mosul to Baghdad in about eighty -four hours ; but
* These oars are precisely the same in shape as those represented in
an Assyrian bas-relief described at p. 239.
Xn.] EMBARKATION OF THE LION. 325
the larger are generally six or seven days in performing the
voyage. In summer, and when the river is low, they are
frequently nearly a month in reaching their destination.
When they have been unloaded, they are broken up, and the
beams, wood, and twigs are sold at Baghdad at a considerable
profit The skins are washed and afterwards rubbed with a
preparation of pounded pomegranate skins, to keep them
from cracking and rotting. They are then brought back,
either upon the shoulders of the raftmen or upon donkeys, to
Mosul and Tekrit, where the men engaged in the naviga-
tion of the Tigris usually reside. The right of navigating the
Tigris with rafts is a monopoly of the Turkish government,
and is sold annually to the highest bidder. This, of course,
makes the price of transport higher than it ought to be, and
acts as a tax upon commerce.
On the 20th of April, there being fortunately a slight rise
in the river, and my arrangements being complete, I deter-
mined to attempt the embarkation of the lion and bull. The
two sculptures had been so placed on beams of poplar wood
that, by withdrawing wedges from under them, they would
slide nearly into the centre of the rafts. The high bank of the
river had been cut away into a rapid slope to the water's edge.
The beams having first been well greased, a raft supported by
six hundred skins was brought opposite the bull, which, on
the wedges being removed, immediately glided into its place.
To prevent its moving too rapidly, and bursting the skins by
the sudden pressure, the Arabs checked it by ropes, and it
was placed without accident. The lion was then embarked,
with equal success, upon a second raft of the same size; in
a few hours the two sculptures, with several large bas reliefs
from the same ruins, were properly secured, and before night
they were ready to float down the river to Busrah.
When the labours of the day were over, sheep were slaugh-
tered for the entertainment of Abd-ur-rahman*s Arabs, who
had assisted on the occasion, and for the workmen. The
Abou-Salman returned to their tents after dark. Abd-ur-
rahman took leave of me, and we did not meet again before
my departure for Europe ; the next day he moved towards
the district of Jezirah in search of pasture. I heard of him
326 XINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
on my journey to Constantinople ; the Kurds by the road
complaining tliat his tribe were making up the number of
their flocks by appropriating the stray sheep of their neigh-
bours. I had seen much of the Sheikh during my residence
at Nimroud ; and although, like all Arabs, he was not averse
to ask for what he thought tliere might be a remote chance
of getting by a little importunity, he was, on the whole, a very
friendly and useful ally.
On the morning of the 22nd, the rafts being ready, I gave
two sheep to the raftmen to be slain on the bank of the river,
as a sacrifice to ensure the success of their voyage. The
carcases were distributed, as is proper on such occasions,
amongst the poor. A third sheep was reserved for a pro-
pitiatory oftering to be immolated at the tomb of Sultan Abd-
Allah — a saint who appears to interfere considerably with the
navigation of the Tigris, and who closed the further ascent of
the river against the infidel crew of the Frank steamer the
* Euphrates,* because they had neglected to make the cus-
tomary sacrifice. All ceremonies having been duly performed,
Mullah Ali kissed my hand, placed himself on one of the
rafts, and slowly floated, with the cargo under his charge,
down the stream.*
As I watched the rafts, until they disappeared behind a
projecting bank forming a distant reach of the river, I could
* It is not improbable that the great obelisk which, acconUng to
Diodorus Siculus (lib. ii. c i), was brought to Babylon from Armenia
by Semiramis, was floated down on raSs supported by skins, in the
same way that I transported the sculptures of Nineveh to Busrah. It
was 130 feet in height, and 25 feet square at the base ; and- being cut
out of the solid rock, if the account be not a little exaggerated, must
have been of prodigious weight. The principal difficulty might probably
appear to have been to place it on the raft ; but this could have been
accomplished by a simple method — by putting the beams forming the
fnimework of wood, and fastening the skins under the obelisk, in some
dry place, which would be oveiilowed during the periodical floods.
"When the water began to rise, by gradually removing the earth from
beneath the skins, they could easily be filled with air ; and when the
stream had reached the raft they would lift up the obelisk, which could
then be floated into the centre of the river. I should have adopted this
method of moving the larger lions and bulls, had I been required
to send them to Busrah without being provided with any mechanical
contrivance sufficiently powerful to embark such large weights by a
ampler process.
XII.] PLUNDERING ARABS. 327
not forbear musing upon the strange destiny of their burdens ;
which, after adorning the palaces of the Ass)Tian kings, the
objects of the wonder, and may be the worship of millions,
had been buried unknown for nearly twenty-five centuries
beneath a soil trodden by Persians under Cyrus, by Greeks
under Alexander, and by Arabs under the first successors of
their Prophet. They were now to visit India, to cross the
most distant seas of the southern hemisphere, and to be finally
placed in a British Museum. Who can venture to foretell
how their strange career will end 1
After the departure of the Abou-Salman, the plain of Nim-
roud was a complete desert. The visits of armed parties of
Arabs became daily more frequent, and we often watched
them firom the mound, as they rode towards the hills in search
of pillage, or returned from their expeditions driving the
plundered flocks and cattle before them. We were still too
strong to fear the Bedouins ; but^ I was compelled to put my
house into a complete state of defence, and to keep patrols
round my premises during the night to avoid surprise. The
Jebours were exposed to constant losses, in the way of donkeys
or tent furniture, as the country was infested by petty thieves,
who issued from their hiding-places, and wandered to and
fro, like jackals, after dark. Nothing was too small or worth-
less to escape their notice. I was roused almost nightly by
shoutings and the discharge of fire-arms, when the whole en-
campment was thrown into commotion at the disappearance
of a copper pot or an old grain sack. I was fortunate enough
to escape their depredations.
The fears of my Jebours increased with the number of the
plundering parties, and at last, when a small Arab settlement,
within sight of Nimroud, was attacked by a band of Aneyza
horsemen, who murdered several of the inhabitants, and drove
away the sheep and cattle, the workmen protested in a body
against any further residence in so dangerous a vicinity. I
found that it would not be much longer possible to keep
them together, and I determined, therefore, to bring the ex-
cavations to an end.
I therefore commenced covering with earth those parts of
the ruins which still remained exposed, according to the in-
328 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
structions I had received from the Trustees of the British
Museum. Had the numerous sculptures been left, widKXit
this precaution having been taken to preserve them, they
would have suffered, not only from the effects of the atmo-
sphere, but from the spears and clubs of the Arabs, who are
always ready to knock out the eyes, and to otherwise dis-
figure, the idols of the unbelievers. The rubbish and eardi
removed during the excavations was accordingly brought ba<^
in baskets, thrown into the chambers, and heaped over the
slabs imtil the whole was again covered over.
But before leaving Nimroud and reburying its palaces, I
would wish to lead the reader once more through the ruins
of the principal edifice, and to convey as distinct an idea as
I am able of the excavated halls and chambers. Let us
imagine ourselves issuing from my tent near the village in die
plain. On approaching the moimd, not a trace of building
can be perceived, except a small mud hut covered with reeds,
erected on its siunmit for the accommodation of my Chaldaean
workmen. We ascend this artificial hill, but still see no ruins,
not a stone protruding from the soiL There is only a broad
level platform before us. perhaps covered with a luxuriant crop
of barley, if in spring ; if in simwner or autumn, yellow and
parched, without a blade of vegetation, except a scanty tuft
of camel-thorn. Low black objects, surrounded by brush-
wood and dried grass, a thin column of smoke rising frt>m the
midst of them, are scattered here and there. These are the
tents of the Arabs; and a few miserable old women are
groping about them, picking up cameFs-dung or dry twigs.
One or two girls, with firm step and erect carriage, are just
reaching the top of the mound, with the water-jar on their
shoulders, or a bundle of brushwood on their heads. On all
sides of us, issuing from underground, are long lines of wild-
looking beings, with dishevelled hair, their limbs only half
covered by a short loose shirt, some jiunping and capering,
and all hurrying to and fro shouting like madmen. Each one
carries a basket, and as he reaches the edge of the mound,
or some convenient spot near, empties its contents, raising a
cloud of dust He then returns at the top of his speed,
dancing and yelling as before, and flourishing his basket over
XII.] GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF RUINS, 329
his head; again he suddenly disappears in the bowels of
the earth, from whence he emerged. These are the work-
men employed in removing the soil and rubbish from the
ruins.
We will descend into the principal trench by a flight of
steps rudely cut in the earth, near the western face of the
mound. As we approach it, we find a party of Arabs bend-
ing on their knees, and intently gazing at something beneath
them. Each holds his long spear, tufted with ostrich feathers,
in one hand ; and in the other the halter of his mare, which
stands patiently behind him. The party consists of a Bedouin
Sheikh from the desert, and his followers ; who, having heard
strange reports of the wonders of Nimroud, have made several
days* journey to remove their doubts and satisfy their curiosity.
He rises as he sees us approach, and if we wish to escape the
embrace of a very dirty stranger we had better at once hurry
into the trenches.
We descend about twenty feet, and suddenly find ourselves
between a pair of colossal lions, winged and human-headed,
forming a portal. I have already described my feeHngs when
gazing for the first time on these majestic figures. Those of
the reader would probably be the same, particularly if caused
by the reflection, that before those wonderful forms Ezekiel,
Jonah, and others of the prophets may have stood, and Sen-
nacherib bowed.
In the subterranean labyrinth which we have reached, all
is bustle and confusion. Arabs are running to and fro; some
bearing baskets filled with earth, others carrying water-jars to
their companions. The Nestorians or Tiyari, in their striped
dresses and conical felt caps, are digging with picks into the
tenacious earth, raising a dense cloud of fine dust at every
stroke. The wild strains of Kurdish music may be occa-
sionally heard issuing from some distant part of the ruins, and
if they are caught by the parties at work, the Arabs join their
voices in chorus, raise the war-cry, and labour with renewed
energy. Leaving behind us a small chamber, in which the
sculptures are distinguished by a want of finish in the execu-
tion, and considerable rudeness in the design of the orna-
ments, we issue from between the winged lions, and enter the
330 XIXEVEH AXD ITS REMAIXS. [Chap.
remains of the principal hall.* On both sides of us are
colossal winged human figures, some with the heads of eagles.
and canning mysterious symbols in their hands. To the left
is another portal, also formed by winged lions. One of them
has fallen across the entrance, and there is just room to creep
beneath it Beyond this portal is a winged figure, and two
slabs with bas-reliefs; but they have been so much de£iced
by exposure to the weather that we can scarcely trace die
subject upon thenL Further on there are no traces of wall,
although a deep trench has been opened. The opposite side
of the hall has also disappeared, and we only see a high wall
of earth. On examining it attentively, we can detect the
marks of masonry ; and we soon find that it is a solid struc-
ture built of bricks of unbaked clay mixed with chopped
straw, now of the same colour as the surrounding soil, and
scarcely to be distinguished from it
The slabs of alabaster, which once panelled this hall, but
which have fallen fi-om their original position, have, however,
been raised ; and we tread in the midst of a maze of small bas-
reliefs, representing chariots, horsemen, batties, and Meges.
Perhaps the workmen are about to raise a slab for the first
time ; and we watch, with eager curiosity, what new event of
Ass>Tian history, or what unknown custom or religious ooe-
mony, may be illustrated by the sculpture beneath.
Ha\ing walked for about one himdred feet amongst these
scattered monuments of ancient history and art, we reach
another doorway, formed by colossal i^inged bulls in yellow
limestone. One is still entire, and standing in its original
position ; but its companion has ^en, and is broken into
several pieces — the great human head is at our feet
We pass on without turning into the part of the building
to which this portal leads. Beyond it we see another winged
figure, holding a gracefiil flower in its hand, and apparently
presenting it as an offering to the winged bulL Adjoining
this sculpture we find a perfect series of highly-finisheil bas-
reliefs still lining the walls. There is the AssjTian king, slay-
ing the lion and wild bull, engaged in battles and in si^es, and
receiving as captives the chiefs of the conquered people. We
♦ Hall B, entrance «, Plan II. p. 42.
XIL] SCULPTURES DESCRIBED BY EZEKIEL. 331
have now reached the end of the hall, and find before us an
elaborate and perfectly-preserved sculpture, representing two
kings, standing beneath the emblem of the Supreme Deity,
and attended by winged figures. Between them is the sacred
tree. In front of this bas-relief is the great marble platform,
upon which, in days of old, may have been placed the throne
of the Assyrian monarch, when he received his captive ene-
mies and his courtiers, or upon which he may have offered
up sacrifices to his gods.
As we gaze upon these singular sculptures the description
of Ezekiel is brought vividly to our minds. The prophet, in
typifying the corruptions which had crept into the religious
system of the Jews, and the idolatrous practices they had
borrowed from the strange nations with which they had been
brought into contact, thus illustrates the influence of the
Assyrians. *She saw men portrayed upon the wall, the
images of the Chaldaeans portrayed with vermiUon, girded
with girdles upon their loins, exceeding in dyed attire upon
their heads, all of them princes to look to, after the manner
of the Babylonians of Chaldaea, the land of their nativity.'*
The prophet was dwelling on the banljs of the Chebar, or
Khabour, in the immediate vicinity of Nineveh, previous to
the destruction of the Assyrian capital, an event which he
most probably witnessed. It may consequently be con-
jectured that he was well acquainted with the Assyrian palaces
and temples, and their sculptured decorations ; and that he
was describing what he had himself seen. He may, indeed,
have entered the very building we are describing. He points
out the rich and highly ornamented head-dress of the kings,
as we see them to this day in the bas-reliefs, and alludes to
the prevalence of that red colour, remains of which are so
firequent on the sculptures of Nimroud and Khorsabad. Nor
can the resemblance of the winged human-headed lions and
* Chap, xxiii. 14, 15. The literal translation of this remarkable
pass^e is * she saw men of sculptured (or painted) workmanship upon
the wall, likenesses of the Chaldaeans, pictured (or sculptured) in shashar
(red ochre or vermilion) ; girded with girdles on their loins, with
coloured flowing head-dresses upon their heads, ivith the aspect of princes
all of them, the likeness of the sons of Babel-Chaldaea, the land of their
nativity. '
332 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
bulls and other symbolical figures to those seen by Ezekiel in
his vision, fail to strike us. It is highly probable that, when
seeking to typify certain divine attributes, and to describe the
divine glory, he chose forms that were not only familiar to
himself, but to the people whom he addressed, captives like
himself in the land of Assyria.* He chose the four living
creatures, with four faces, ^wr wings^ and the hands of a man
under their wings on t fie four sides, the faces being those of a
man, and of a lion, an ox, and an eagle — the four creatures
continually introduced on the sculptured walls — and by them
was a wheel, the appearance of which * was as a wheel in the
middle of a wheel. '+ May not this wheel have been the
winged circle, or globe, which, hovering above the head of
the king, typifies in the sculptures the Supreme Deity of the
Assyrian nation?
Emblem of the Deity. (N. W. Palace, NimrouA)
To the left of the great bas-relief at the eastern end of the
hall is a fourth outlet formed by another pair of human-headed
lions. We pass between them, and find ourselves on the edge
of a deep ravine, to the north of which rises, high above us,
the lofty pyramid. Figures of captives bearing objects of
tribute — earrings, bracelets, and monkeys — are sculptured
on the walls ; and two enormous human-headed bulls, with
two winged figures above fourteen feet high, are lying prostrate
on the ground.
* Winged human-headed bulls and other remains of an Assyrian
palace were subsequently discovered on the river Khabour or Chebar,
where part of the captive tribes and Ezekiel were exiled. (See * Nine-
veh and Babylon,* ch. v.)
+ Ezekiel, i. i6.
XIL] GENERAL DESCRIPTION OF RUINS, 333
As the ravine bounds the ruins on this side, we must return
to the yellow bulls.* The entrance formed by them leads us
into a large chamber surrounded by eagle-headed figures : at
one end of it is a doorway guarded by two priests or divinities,
and in the centre another portal with winged bulls. Which-
ever way we turn, we find ourselves in the midst of a nest of
rooms ; and without an acquaintance with the intricacies of
the place, we should soon lose ourselves in this labyrinth.
The soil and rubbish not having been removed from the
centre of the chambers, the excavations consist of a number
of narrow passages, panelled on one side with slabs of ala-
baster, and shut in on the other by a high wall of earth, half
buried in which may here and there be seen a broken vase,
or a brick painted with brilliant colours. We may wander
through these galleries for an hour or two, examining the
strange sculptures, or the numerous inscriptions that surround
us. Here we see long rows of kings, attended by their
eunuchs and priests — there lines of winged figures, carrying
fir-cones and religious emblems, and seemingly in adoration
before the mystic tree. On one side representations of bat-
tles, sieges, and the triumphs of the Assyrian arms ; on the
other, illustrations of the manners and domestic life of the
inhabitants of ancient Nineveh. Other entrances, formed by
winged lions and bulls, lead us into new chambers. In every
one of them are fresh objects to excite our curiosity and sur-
prise. At length, wearied, we issue from the buried edifice
by a passage on the side opposite to that by which we entered,
and find ourselves again upon the naked platform. We look
around in vain for any. traces of the wonderful remains we
have just seen, and are half inclined to beHeve that we have
dreamed a dream, or have been listening to some tale of
Eastern romance.
Some, who may hereafter tread on the spot, when the
grass again grows over the ruins of the Assyrian palaces, may
indeed suspect that I have been relating a vision.
* Plan II. Hall B, entrance/, p. 42.
334 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
CHAPTER XIII.
Departure from XimrouJ — Excax'ations at Kintyunjik — Disaivery tf
palace — Bas-reiiefs — General description of the sculptures — ExcatHUmts
carried on by Mr, Ross — His discen^eries — A sculptured slab andsarc^
pkagus — Preparations for my return to Constantinople — Leazt MasmL
The palaces of Nimroud had again been covered up with
earth, and the sculptures once more concealed fix)in the
eye of man. The surrounding country became daily more
dangerous from the incursions of the Arabs of the desert^
who now began to encamp even on the east bank of the
Tigris, close to the ruins. It was time, therefore, to leave
the village. As a small sum of money still remained at my
disposal, I resolved to devote it to an examination of the
ruins opposite Mosul; particularly of the great mound of
Kou}'unjik. Although excavations on a small scale had
already been made there, I had not hitherto had time to
superintend them m}'self, and in such researches the nati\'es
of the countrj' cannot be trusted. It is well known that al-
most since the fall of the Ass}Tian empire, a city of some
extent, representing the ancient Nineveh, although no longer
the seat of government, nor a place of great importance, has
stood on the banks of the Tigris in this part of its course.*
The modem city may not have been built above the ruins of
the ancient; but it certainly rose in their immediate \-icinity,
either on the eastern bank of the river, or on the western,
like the modem Mosul. The slabs, which had once lined the
walls of the palaces of ancient Nineveh, and still remained
concealed within mounds of earth, had been frequently ex-
posed by accident or by design. It was soon found that the
mins were an inexhaustible mine of building materials. The
• There was a Roman city on the mins of Nineveh, coins of which
have been preserved.
Xm.] VARIOUS ASSYRIAN RUINS. 335
alabaster was dug out to be used in the construction of houses,
or to be burnt for Hme. A few years before my first visit,
a bas-relief had been discovered in one part of the ruins,
during a search after stones for the repair of a bridge. The
removal of slabs, and the destruction of sculptures, for similar
purposes, may have been going on for centuries. There
might, therefore, have been some reason to doubt whether
any important remains, preserved like those at Nimroud, still
existed in Kouyunjik. I knew that, under the village con-
taining the tomb of the prophet Jonah, there were Assyrian
ruins of considerable importance, probably as entire as those
at Nimroud. They owed their preservation to the existence
above them, from a very remote period, of the tomb and vil-
lage, and of a burial ground, considered especially sacred on
account of its vicinity to the grave of the prophet, and which
had spread over the rest of the surface of the mound. Frag-
ments of sculpture, and inscriptions, had frequently been
found when the inhabitants of the place had made the
foundations of their dwellings ; and I was assured by a grey-
beard of the place, that when Ali Pasha of Baghdad caused
a well to be dug for the benefit of the mosque, a pair of
winged bulls had been discovered at a considerable depth
beneath the surface. But the prejudices of the people of Mosul
forbade any attempt to explore a spot so venerated for its
sanctity.
The palaces of Nimroud, having been far distant from any
large town, when once buried were not disturbed. It does
not appear that, after the fall of the empire, any place of im-
portance rose near them, except Selamiyah. This village is
three miles firom the ruins, and there are no remains near it
to show that, at any time since the Assyrian period, it was
anything more than a small market town. It may, conse-
quently, be inferred that the great mound of Nimroud has
never been opened, and its contents carried away for build-
ing purposes, since the destruction of the latest Assyrian
palace; except, as it has already been mentioned, when a
Pasha of Mosul endeavoured to remove one or two slabs to
repair the tomb of a Mussulman saint.
There are grounds, I think, for believing that the edifices
336 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
of which the remains exist at Nimroud, Kouyunjik, and Khor-
sabad, were at one time included within the area to which the
name of Nineveh was applied. Each of these palace-temples
(for such they appear to have been) was probably the centre
of a separate quarter, built at a different period, and having
a different name. Thus on the inscribed bricks we find dis-
tinct names apparently applying to the localities from which
they are obtained ; for instance, according to Sir H. Rawlin-
son, Calah to Nimroud, and Beth-Sargina to Khorsabad;' and
this will explain the names of Mespila and Larissa assigned
by Xenophon, respectively, to the ruins at Koujrunjik and
Nimroud, and that of Evorita given to the palace in which
Saracus, the last of the Assyrian kings, is said to have de-
stroyed himself The great mounds and earthen ramparts
still existing represent, it may be conjectured, royal resi-
dences surrounded by walls and fortifications, within which
were enclosed hunting grounds and gardens rather than fixed
habitations. They resembled, in fact, the paradises or parks
of the Persian kings. The space between these quarters was
occupied by private houses standing in the midst of gardens,
orchards, and corn-land. Different kings probably built
such royal residences or quarters for themselves, giving to
them a new name; and thus, in the course of time, different
names came to be given to different parts of the city. I can
suggest no other way of reconciling the unanimous statements
of ancient historians, as well as of the Old Testament, as to
the extent of Nineveh, nor of explaining the fact that each
of the great edifices explored owed its foundation to a dif-
ferent king, and that there are no remains, either at Kou-
yunjik or Khorsabad, of the same early period as those at
Nimroud. The dimensions of the city, as given by Diodorus
Siculus were 150 stadia for the two longest sides of the
quadrangle, and 90 for the shortest, the square being 480
stadia or about 60 miles. Jonah calls it * an exceeding great
city of three days' journey,' the number of inhabitants,- who
did not know their right hand from their left, being six score
thousand.* It is certainly remarkable that the three days'
* Various meanings have been assigned to this statement. Some
suppose that young children are intended, who would form about one-
XIII.] SITE OF ANCIENT NINEVEH. 337
journey of Jonah should correspond exactly with the sixty
miles of the geographer, and that a square formed by the
great ruins on the east bank of the Tigris, taking Nimroud,
Kouyunjik, Khorsabad, and Karamless as the four comers,
should give very nearly the same result* These fortified
quarters were not all enclosed within one wall, which sur-
rounded the whole area occupied by them; no traces of any
such wall have been discovered. The city was probably open,
and, in the event of a siege, the population took refuge within
the fortifications surrounding the royal palaces. To this day
Damascus, Isfahan, and some of the great cities of India,
such as Delhi, are built precisely upon this plan.
It would appear, from comparing the relative antiquity of the
various ruins hitherto discovered, that the city was originally
founded on the spot now occupied by the mounds of Nimroud.
No better position could have been chosen • than the delta
formed by the junction of two large rivers like the Tigris and
the Zab. The N. W. palace was the first built ; successive
monarchs added the centre palace, and other edifices which
rose by its side. As the population increased, and conquered
nations were brought, like the people of Samaria, from distant
lands and settled around the Assyrian capital, the dimensions
of the city increased also. A king founding a new dynasty,
or anxious to perpetuate his fame, and to record his conquests,
chose a new site for the erection of a palace. The city,
gradually spreading, at length embraced all these buildings.
Thus Nimroud would represent the original site of Nineveh.
The son of the builder of the oldest palace there founded a
fifth of the population, which would then have been about 600,000.
Others contend that Jonah merely alluded to the general ignorance of the
inhabitants.
* The distance from Kouyunjik to Nimroud is about eigjhteen miles ;
that from Nimroud to Klaramless about twelve, the opposite sides of the
square the same ; these measurements correspond accurately with the
elongated quadrangle of Diodorus. Twenty miles is a day's journey
in the East, and we have therefore exactly three days' journey for the
circumference of the city. These coincidences are, at least, very remark-
able. Within this space was fought the great battle between Heraclius
and Rhazates (A. D. 627). * The city, and even the ruins of the city,
had long since disappeared : the vacant space afforded a spacious field for
the operations of the two armies. ' (Gibbon's Decline and Fall, ch. xlvi. )
Z
338 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
new edifice at Baashiekhah. At a much later period subse-
quent monarchs erected their teraple-palaces at Khorsabad
and Kouyunjik. Their descendants returned to Nimroud,
the principal buildings of which had been allowed to fall to
decay. They used the materials taken from their ruins in the
construction of new residences for themselves. The city had
now attained the dimensions assigned to it by the Greek
geographers, and by the sacred writings. The numerous royal
residences, surrounded by gardens and parks, and enclosed
by fortified walls, each being a distinct quarter called by a
different name, and the vast mass of private buildings, fields,
and gardens lying between them, formed together the great
city known to the Jews and Greeks as Nineveh.
It is not difficult to account for the total disappearance of the
dwelling-places which occupied the spaces between the forti-
fied palaces. They were probably little superior to the houses
and huts of the present inhabitants of the country, and, like
them, constructed entirely of sun-dried bricks. As soon as they
were allowed to fall to decay on the capture and destruction
of the city, the materials of which they were built again
mingled with the soil, and after the lapse of a very few years
scarcely a trace of them would exist. Thus the site of a
modern village of Assyria, when once deserted, can soon only
be traced by a low mound in the plain, and rapidly disappears .
altogether. There are, however, still sufficient remains to
indicate that buildings were once spread over the space I
have described ; for scarcely a husbandman drives his plough
through the soil without turning up the vestiges of former
habitations. The larger and more important buildings are
fully represented by the numerous mounds which are scattered
over the face of the country between the four great ruins I
have described. If it be objected that no remains of ancient
buildings have been found in these mounds, I may remind
the reader that even the palaces would have remained undis-
covered had not slabs of alabaster marked their walls.
We cannot identify in any other way than that I have sug-
gested, the different ruins of Nimroud, Khorsabad, and Kou-
yunjik with Nineveh; unless, indeed, we suppose that there
were several cities of that name, built at different periods on
XIIL]
DIMENSIONS OF NINEVEH.
339
different sites. In this case Nimroud and Kouyunjik may
each represent the Nineveh of a different epoch. The dimen-
sions which I have assigned to the city at the time of its
greatest prosperity cannot, I think, be deemed extravagant
when the nature of Eastern cities is taken into consideration.
They do not bear the same proportion to their populations
as those of Europe. A place as extensive as London or Paris
would not contain one-third of the inhabitants of either. The
custom, prevalent from the earliest period in the East, of
secluding women from strangers, and in apartments removed
A House. * (Kouyunjik. )
The Interior of a Tent (Kouyunjik. )
from those of the men, renders a separate house for each
family almost indispensable.f It was probably as rare, in the
time of the Assyrian empire, to find more than one family
residing under one roof, unless composed of persons very
intimately related, such as father and son, as it is at present
in an Arab or Turkish city. Moreover, that gardens and
* This house appears to resemble the model of an Egyptian dwelling
in the British Museuni. (See also Sir Gardiner Wilkinson's * Ancient
Egyptians,' vol. ii. woodcuts 98 and 99.) From a bas-relief discovered
in the centre of the mound at Nimroud, it would appear that the upper
part was sometimes of canvas.
+ We learn from the book of Esther that such was the custom amongst
the early Persians, although the intercourse between the sexes was at
that time much less circumscribed than it became after the spread of
Mohammedanism. Ladies were even admitted to public banquets, and re-
ceived strangers in their own apartments, although they resided habitually
in dwellings separate from the men.
340 NINEVEH AND ITS REAfAINS. [Chap.
arable land were attached to the houses and included within
the precincts of these great Eastern cities, we learn from
Diodorus Siculus and Quintus Curtius, who state that there
was space enough, within the ^-alls of Babylon, to cultivate
com for the sustenance of the whole population in case <^
siege, besides orchards and gardens.* From the expression
of Jonah that there was much cattle in Nineveh,t it may be
inferred that there was also pasture for th^m; and we learn
from the sculptures that a portion of the population even
resided in tents within the city — a custom still pre\-ailing in
Baghdad, Mosul, and the neighbouring towns, A larger space
must have been required for such encampments than for huts
or cottages. The cities of Isfahan, Damascus, and Delhi,
with their walled castles and palaces, and their gardens and
suburbs, must, during the time of their greatest prosperity,
have been Uttle inferior in size to Nineveh.
Existing ruins show that Nineveh had acquired its greatest
extent in the time of the Assyrian kings mentioned in the
Old Testament It was then that Jonah visited it, and that
reports of its size and magnificence were carried to the West,
and gave rise to those traditions from which the Greeks mainly
derived the information they have handed down to us con-
cerning the city. It was then, too, that the wealth, luxury,
and power of its inhabitants called forth the indignant protests
of the prophets, and led to those vices and that eflfeminacy
which ultimately brought about the destruction of Nineveh
and the fall of the empire. {
By the middle of May, I had finished my work at Nimroud.
My house was dismantled. The windows and doors, which
had been temporarily fitted up, were taken out ; and, with the
Httle furniture that had been collected together, were placed
on the backs of donkeys and camels to be carried to MosuL
The Arabs struck their tents and commenced their march. I
remained behind until every one had left, and then turned
my back upon the deserted village. We were the last to quit
* Diod. Sic. lib. ii. c. 9 ; Quint Curt. v. cap. I. t Chap iv. n.
t Some additional obsen-ations on the site and size of Nineveh will be
found in the account of my second expedition to Assyria. (See * Niner^
and Babylon,' ch. xiv.)
XIII.] LAST LOOK ON NIMROUD. 341
the plains of Nimroud ; and, indeed, nearly the whole country
to the south of Mosul, as far as the Zab, became, after our
departure, a wilderness.
Halfway between Mosul and Nimroud the road crosses a
low hill. From its crest, both the town and the ruins are
visible. On one side, in the distance, rises the pyramid, in
the midst of the broad plain of the Jaif, and on the other may
be faintly distinguished the great mound of Kouyunjik, and
the surrounding remains. The leaning minaret of the old
mosque of Mosul may also be seen springing above the dark
patch which marks the site of the town. The river can be
traced for many miles, winding in the midst of the plain,
suddenly losing itself in the higher lands, and again emerging
from them into the level country. The whole space over which
the eye ranges from this spot, was probably once covered with
the houses and gardens of the Assyrian capital — that great
city of three days' journey. At an earlier period, that distant
pyramid directed the traveller from afar to Nineveh, when the
limits of the city were small. It was then one of those primi-
tive settlements which, for the first time, had been formed by
the congregated habitations of men. To me the long dark
line of mounds in the distance were objects of deep interest.
I reined up my horse to look upon them for the last tiipe —
for from no other part of the road are they visible — and then
galloped on towards Mosul.
In excavating at Kouyunjik, I pursued the plan I had ad-
opted at Nimroud. I resided in MosUl. The Arabs pitched
their tents on the summit of the mound, at the entrances to
the trenches. The Nestorians encamped at its foot, on the
banks of the Khausser, the small stream which flows through
the ruins. The nearness of the ruins enabled the inhabitants
of the town to gratify their curiosity by a constant inspection
of my proceedings; and a crowd of gaping Mussulmans and
Christians was continually gathered round the trenches. I
rode to the mound early every morning, and remained there
during the day.
The shape of the great mound of Kouyunjik is very irregular.
Nearly square on the south»-westem side, it narrows almost to
a point on the north-eastern. .At the northern extremity are
342 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
the ruins of the village from which the mound takes its name.*
From this spot a steep road leads to the plain, forming the
only access to the simimit for loaded animals. Not feir from
the ruined village is a small Mussulman tomb, surmounted by
a dome, and covering the remains of some * Sheikh,' or holy
man, whose name and story have long passed away. A little
beyond it, to the south-west, the level is higher than that of
any other part of the mound ; and here may be traced the
remains of buildings of an early period, although not Assyrian.
They may be assigned to the time of the Romian or Parthian
occupation of this part of Assyria. To- the south of the tomb
the platform suddenly sinks, leaving a crescent-shaped ridge,
like an amphitheatre There are ravines, or narrow steep
channels, leading from the foot to the summit of the mound,
on all sides of Kouyunjik, except that facing the Tigris. If
not entirely formed by the winter rains, they have been worn
and deepened by them. They may mark the places where
paths, or flights of steps, once led from the plain to the palaces
which stood on the platform. They are strewed with bricks
and fragments of pottery, and sometimes of stone and cal-
cined alabaster. \Vhen the sides, undermined by the winter
torrent, fall in, they frequently disclose masses of solid masonry
of sun-dried bricks. Through these gullies are carried the
pathways to the top of the mound, used by the people of the
country.
The river Khausser winds round the eastern base of Kou-
yunjik, and then makes its way to the Tigris. Although a
small and sluggish stream, except when swollen by the winter
rains, it has wom for itself a deep bed, and is only fordable
near the mound, immediately below the southern comer,
where the road to Mosul crosses it; and at the northern ex-
tremity, where a flour-mill is turned by its waters. After rain
it becomes an impetuous torrent, overflowing its banks, and
carrying all before it It then rises very suddenly, and as
suddenly subsides. The Tigris now flows at a distance of
about half a mile from the mound, but at one time swept
round its foot, traces of the ancient channel still existing.
• * Kouyunjik ' means, in Turkish, *the little sheep.' The Arabs^
however, call the mound * Armousheeyah.'
XIII.] PROPER METHOD OF EXCAVATION. 343
Even now, when the river is swollen by extraordinary floods
from the hills, it occasionally overflows the whole plain up to
Kouyunjik. This small plain is formed by a rich deposit left
by the river, and is always under cultivation, being divided
into corn-fields, and melon and cucumber beds. Here stands
the village of Kouyunjik, which was removed, some years
ago, to this more convenient spot, from the summit of the
mound.
The French Consul had carried on excavations for some
time at Kouyunjik, without finding any traces of building.
He was satisfied with digging pits or wells, a few feet deep,
and then renouncing the attempt, when no sculptures or in-
scriptions were uncovered. By excavating in this desultory
manner, if any remains of building existed under ground, their
discovery would be a m^re chance. An acquaintance with
the nature and position of the ancient edifices of Assyria, will
at once suggest the proper method of examining the mounds
which enclose them. The Assyrians, when about to build a
palace or temple, first constructed a platform of sun-dried
bricks and earth, about thirty or forty feet above the level of
the plain. Upon it they raised the edifice. When the build-
ing was destroyed, its ruins, already half-buried by the falling ,
in of the upper walls and chambers and the roof, were in pro-
cess of time completely covered by the dust and dry loose
soil, carried about by the hot winds of summer. Consequently,
in digging for remains, the first step is to find the platform of
sun-dried bricks. When this is discovered, the trenches must
be dug down to the level of it, and not deeper ; they should
then be continued in different directions, care being always
taken to keep along the platform. By these means, if there
be any ruins, they must necessarily be discovered, supposing
the trenches to be carried far enough ; for the halls and cham-
bers of the Assyrian edifices were generally narrow, and their
walls, or the slabs which cased them, if fallen from their places,
must soon be reached.
At Kouyunjik, the accumulation of rubbish and earth was
very considerable, and to find the platform of unbaked bricks,
trenches were dug to the depth of twenty and even thirty feet.
Before beginning the excavations, I carefully examined all
344 KISEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
parts of the mound, to ascertain where remains of buildings
might most probably exist ; and at length decided upon con-
tinuing my researches where I had commenced them last
summer, near the S. W. comer.
The workmen had been digging for several days without
finding any other remains than fragments of calcined alabaster,
sufficient, however, to encourage me to persevere in the ex-
amination of this part of the ruins. One morning as I T^-as
in Mosul, two Arab women came to me, and announced that
sculptures had been discovered. They had hurried from the
mound as soon as the first slab had been exposed to view;
and blo^ving up the skins, which they always carry vAxh, them,
had crossed the river upon them. They had scarcely received
the present claimed in the East by the bearers of good tidings,
and the expectation of which had led to tke display of so
much eagerness, than one of my overseers, who was generally
known from his corpulence as Toma Shishman, or fat Thomas,
made his appearance, breathless from his exertions. He had
hurried as fast as his legs could carry him over the bridge, to
obtain the reward carried off, in this instance, to his great dis-
appointment, by the women.
I rode immediately to the ruins; and, on entering the
trenches, found that the workmen had reached a wall, and the
remains of an entrance. The only slab as yet uncovered had
been almost completely destroyed by fire. It stood on the
edge of a deep ravine, which ran far into the southern side of
the mound.
As the excavations at Kouyunjik were carried on in pre-
cisely the same manner as those at Nimroud, I need not
trouble the reader with any detailed account of my proceed-
ings. The wall first discovered proved to be one side of a
chamber. By following it we reached an entrance formed by
winged human-headed bulls, leading into a second halL In
a month nine halls and chambers had been explored.
The palace had been destroyed by fire. The alabaster
slabs were almost reduced to lime, and many of them fell to
pieces as soon as uncovered. The places, which others had
occupied, could only be traced by a thin white deposit, Hke
a coat of plaster, left by the burnt alabaster upon the wall of
sun-dried bricks.
XIII.] SCULPTURES AT KOUYUNJIK.
345
In Its architecture, the newly discovered edifice resembled
the palaces of Nimroud and Khorsabad. .The halls were
long and narrow; the walls built of unbaked brick, and pan-,
elled with sculptured slabs. The alabaster slabs were, how-
ever, generally larger in their dimensions than those found at
Nimroud, being about ten feet high, and from eight to nine
feet broad. The winged human-headed bulls, forming the
entrances, were from fourteen to sixteen feet square. The
slabs, unlike those I had hitherto discovered, were not di-
vided in the centre by bands of inscription, but were com-
Head of Winged Bull. (Khorsabad and
Kouyunjik. )
Head of Winged Monster.
(Persepolis.)
pletely covered with figures. The bas-reliefs were inferior in
general design, and in the beauty of the details, to those of
the most ancient palace at Nimroud ; but in many parts they
were very carefully and minutely^nished : in this respect the
sculptures of Kouyunjik yield to no others discovered in
Assyria. The winged bulls resembled those of Khorsabad,
and not those of the north-west palace at Nimroud, in their
head-dress, which consisted of a high homed hat, flat and not
rounded at the top, and ornamented with a crest of feathers
and rosettes: in this respect they were like the winged
monsters of Persepolis. Some of the bulls had four legs,
346 NINEVEH AND ITS REMA/A'S. [Chap.
others five, as at Nimroud.* In the costumes and armour of
the warriors, in the trappings and caparisons of the horses,
and in the dresses of the priests and winged figures, the
sculptures also resembled those of Khorsabad.
Inscriptions were not numerous. They occurred between
the legs of the winged bulls, and above the head of the king,
and on bas-reliefs representing the siege or sack of a city, in
the form of short epigraphs, and on the backs of slabs ; but
they (vere all more or less injured. Those on the bulls were
long, one inscription being continued on the two sides of an
entrance. \s four pairs of these colossal figures were dis-
covered, each pair bearing nearly the same inscription, the
whole may be restored from the fragments.t
The king, whose name is on the sculptures and bricts from
Kouyunjik, was the father of Esarhaddon, the builder of the
S.W. palace at Nimroud, and the son of Sargon, the KJior-
sabad king, and is now generally admitted to be Sennacherib.
The name was first interpreted by Dr. Hincks, and is formed
by the following cuneiform characters : —
->f <« ^ H- ^\
Long before the discovery of the ruins of the palace, I had
conjectured, from an examination of a few fragments of
sculpture and inscriptions picked up on the mound, that the
building which once stood there must be referred to the time
of the Khorsabad king, or to one of his immediate prede-
cessors or successors.
A few vases and fragments of pottery were discovered in
the earth, above the ruins ; but no sarcophagi, or tombs with
human remains, like those of Nimroud and Kalah SherghaL
The foundations of buildings, of roughly hewn stone, and
probably of the Roman or JParthian period, were also found
above the Assyrian edifice. One or two small glass bottles
* It has already been mentioned that the winged lions and bulls of
the N. W. palace at Nimroud were furnished with five legs, that the
spectator, according to the position in which he stood, might have a per-
fect front and side view of the animal.
t An entire inscription is included in the collection of inscriptions
printed for the Trustees of the British Museum.
XIII.] EXCA VA TIONS A T KOUYUNJIK,
347
many fragments of glass, several tablets in clay, covered with
cuneiform characters, and one or two detached slabs with in-
scriptions, were taken out of the rubbish.*
The slabs forming the entrance to the chamber t first dis-
covered had been almost entirely destroyed. The colossal
figures which had been sculptured upon them were probably
those of priests or deities such as had been found at Nimroud.
The extremities of these figures were alone preserved. They
Plan IV. Chambers excavated at Kouyunjik in 1847.
were those of an eagle or vulture : to them were united, it would
appear from subsequent discoveries, the body of a man and the
head of a lion. The walls of the -chamber had suffered no less
than the doorway. Upon some of the slabs could be traced
processions of warriors, and captives passing through a thickly
wooded, mountainous country ; the mountains being conven-
tionally represented, as in the bas-reliefs of Nimroud, by a
* The greater number of these small objects are in the British
Museum. + Chamber A, Plan IV.
348
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS.
[Chap.
network of lines. On the fragment of a slab was an eunuch
carrying an utensil resembling a censer, and standing before
an altar, near which were vessels of various shapes.
The southern extremity of the great hall,* into which the
chamber just described opened, had been completely de-
stroyed. Its width was about forty-five feet, and the length
of the wall to the left of the entrance of the small chamber
(it could not be traced on the opposite side), was nearly one
hundred and sixty feet. The first bas-relief near the entrance
represented the burning and sacking of a city, and was di-
vided into several compartments by parallel lines. In the
upper, occupying about half the sculpture, were represented
houses, some of which were two and three stories high ; they
had been fired by the enemy, and flames were issuing from
the windows and doors. Beneath were three rows of warriors,
marching in regiments, distinguished by different helmets,
arms, and shields. Some wore the pointed helmet like that
represented in the Nimroud Sculptures,
but with the addition of lappets cover-
ing and protecting the ears. They bore
concave oval shields, large enough to
cover the greater part of the person
— probably of metal, the centre and
margin being ornamented with bosses.
The conquerors were carrying away the
spoil, consisting of furniture, vases,
chariots, and horses. Beneath the
figures were vines bearing grapes. The
captured city stood upon a mountain.
Above it was a short inscription, un-
fortunately almost illegible, containing
its name, and a record of the event
represented in the bas-relief
On an adjoining slab was a mountain
clothed with forests. Amongst the trees
were warriors, some descending in mili-
tary array, and leading prisoners towards a castle; others
ascending the steep rocks with the aid of their spears, or
* Chamber B, Plan IV. p. 347.
Warrior with Shield
(Kouyunjik.)
XIII.] SCULPTURES AT KOUYVNJIK. - 349
resting, seated under the trees. The same subject had
evidently been continued on the next slab, which had been
destroyed.
After these bas-reliefs came an entrance formed by two
winged bulls, nearly sixteen feet and a half square, and each
sculptured out of one slab. The human heads of these co-
lossal figures had been entirely destroyed. Of the inscription
which once covered the parts of the slabs not sculptured,
there remained only a few lines. Notwithstanding the size
of the bulls, this entrance scarcely exceeded six feet in width,
thus differing in its proportion from those at Nimroud. The
pavement was formed by one slab, elaborately ornamented
with flowers resembling the lotus in low relief. Behind each
sculpture was a short inscription, containing the names and
titles of Sennacherib.
Beyond this entrance, to the distance of nearly sixty feet,
only two slabs were preserved. On one was the interior of a
castle, the walls and towers represented, as at Nimroud, by
a kind of ground-plan. The city had been taken by the
Assyrians, and the king seated on his throne, within the walls,
was receiving the prisoners and spoil brought to him by his
yizir. His dress differed in many respects from that of the
monarch in the earlier sculptures at Nimroud.
His tiara was higher, more pointed, made up
of several bands, and more richly ornamented.
The ornaments on his robes consisted prin-
cipally of rosettes and fringes, groups of men
and animals not being introduced as in the
more ancient sculptures. He was seated on
a chair with a high back, and his feet rested
on an elegant footstool. Behind the throne
stood two eunuchs holding fans over his head.
The arms of the prisoners were fastened be- King. (Kouyunjik.)
fore them by fetters, probably of metal*
Within the walls of the city, as in the bas-reliefs discovered
at Nimroud, were represented houses and tents, in which
* * To bind their kings with chains and their nobles with fetters of
iron' (Psalm cxlix. 8). * They put out the eyes of Zedekiah, and bound
350 MXEVEH AND ITS REJfA/ATS. [Chap.
were seen men engaged in a variety of domestic occupations,
and articles of furniture, such as tables, couches, and chairs.
Suspended to the tent-poles were vases, probably used for
the purpose of cooling drinking water, as is still the custom
in the VsOsU Above the head of the king was one line of in-
scription containing his name and titles. The castle was
built on a mountain, and was surrounded by trees.
On the other slab was represented the invasion of a monn-
tainous country. The enemy defended the summit of a
wooded hill against Ass^-rian warriors, who were sealing the
rocks, supporting themselves with their spears and with poles,
or drawing themselves up by the branches of trees. Others,
returning from the combat, were descending the mountains
driving captives before them, or carrying away the heads of
the slain.
A spacious entrance at the upper, or northern, end of the
hall opened into a small chamber, which will be hereafter
described.* The winged bulls forming this portal were in
better preservation than those previously discovered. Their
human heads, with the high and elaborately adorned tiaia of
the later Assyrian period, although greatly injured, were still
entire. The greater part of the inscriptions upon them was
also preserved.
Upon the two slabs beyond this entrance was a bas-relief
him with fetters of brass, and took him to Babylon ' (2 Kings, xxv. 7).
Samson was bound with fetters of brass (Judges xvi. 21). In a bas-relief
discovered at Khorsabad, were represented captives led bdbre the kii^
by rings of iron passed through their noses and lips, and to which a cord
Manacles for the "Feet f Khorsabad and Manacles for the Hands.
Kouyunjik.) (Khorsabad and Kousrunjik.)
was attached ; thus illustrating the passage, * I will put my hook in thy
nose, and my bridle m thy lips.'
♦ Chamber G, Plan IV.p. 347
XIII.]
BAS-RELIEF OF A GALLEY.
351
of considerable interest Ships or galleys, filled with warriors
and women, were seen leaving a castle, built on the sea-shore
at the foot of a mountain. At a gate opening upon the water
stood a man placing a child in the open arms of a woman,
who had already embarked in one of the ships. The sea
was indicated by wavy lines, covering the slab from top to
bottom, amongst which were fish, crabs, and turtles. The
vessels were of two kinds. The larger had one mast, to the
top of which was attached a long yard held in its place by
ropes. The sail was furled. It had two, or perhaps three
A Ga lley. ( K ouyun j ilc. )
decks, as there appears to have been a double tier of rowers.
On the upper deck, which was high out of the water, were
warriors armed with spears, and women wearing high turbans
or caps, to the back of which long veils were attached. The
fore part of the vessel rose perpendicularly from a low sharp
prow, resembling a ploughshare, which may have been a metal
ram, like that of the Roman galleys, to disable and sink the
enemy's ships. The stem was curved from the keel, and
ended in a high point rising above the upper deck. The ship
appears to have been steered by two long oars. Eight rowers
were seen on a side, but the number represented in the bas-
XIXEl'EH AXD ITS REMAIXS.
[Chap,
relief was probably merely conventional The lower deck,
upon which sat the second tier of rowers, was concealed br
the sitlcs of the vessel the oars being worked through small
port holes. The smaller vessel had no mast, and the head
and stem were simihr in shape. It was furnished with a
double deck, and had the same number of rowers as the
larger. Shields were suspended around the upper decks of
both.*
The larger vessel appears to have resembled in form the
galleys represented on coins of a very early date, which were
Coin probably of a City on the Syrian Coast duriog: the Persian occupatica.
probably struck by Phoenician colonies during the Persian
supremacy in western Asia. The reverse of these coins
* In the Khorsabad sculptures, ships differing in form from those de-
scribed in the text were represented. That they did not belong to the
A Galley. Kouyuajik.;
Ass>Tian5, but to some allied or conquered nation, appears to be indicated
by the peculiar costume of tlie figures in them. They are in the sha|)e
XIII.]
BAS-RELIEF OF A GALLEY.
353
bears the effigy of a Persian king>in his chariot, like those of
Darius, called * Darics/ These galleys may further be identi-
fied with similar vessels used by the inhabitants of the Syrian
coast by the coins of Sidon of a later period, which bear on
one side a galley of similar shape, and on the other the head
of an Assyrian goddess. It is highly probable, therefore, that
the sculptures described represent the siege and capture of
Tyre, Sidon, or some other city on the Phoenician coast of the
Mediterranean. History has recorded the wars of Shalmaneser
^vith the Tyrians, under their king Elulaeus, and the conquest
of the whole of Phoenicia by the Assyrian monarch;* and
of a sea-monster, the head of a horse forming the prow, and the tail of
a fish the stem. The mast is supported by ropes, and is surmounted by
A Galley. (Khorsabad.)
a kind of stand, or what a seaman would call * a crow's nest,* which in
Egyptian sculptures holds an archer.
* Josephus, lib. ix. c. 14. The Tyrians having revolted, Shalmaneser
attacked them with 60 vessels and 800 rowers, furnished by the inha-
bitants of other maritime cities. The Tyrians, however, defeated this
A A
354 \/y£r£H AXD ITS REMAIXS. [Chap,
according to Eusebius. who quotes from Abydenos* Senu-
cherib defeated the Greek fleet on the Cilidan coast. At the
mouth of the \ahr-el-Kelb river near Beyrout are tablets cm
in the face of the rock, containing the effigv c^ Sennacbeiib
himself^ and inscriptions recording his campai^ in Syria;
and a ' stele.' or isolated tablet, on which are insciibed tix
records of the Khorsabad king, his Either, has been dis-
co\-ered in Cyprus. Moreover, the inscriptions on tbe bolis
at Kou\-unjik, and upon clay cylinders and tablets, describe
the conquest of parts of Phoenicia and their ca}Ntal cides by
Sennacherib : and there can, I think, be little doubt that these
sculptures represent that event.*
Materials derived from distant countries, and of the most
cosdy description, were employed in the construction of the
T\Tian vessels. The ' ship^boards were of the fir-trees of
Senir,' the masts of the cedars of Lebanon, the oars of dje
oaks of Bashan. and the benches of ivory brought from the
isles of Chittim, and carded by the Ashurites, probaUv the
Ass}Tians, of whose skill we have full proof in tbe beaudfbl
ivories from Ximroud. * Fine linen, with brcndeied mxsk
from Egypt' was used for sails, and the ornaments w\Me of
'blue and purple, from the Isles of Elishah.' Tbe men
of Sidon and An*ad were employed as mariners, and d^e
management and sailing of the vessds were confided to die
pilots of T}Te, who, by long experience, were wdl versed in
the art of na\Tgation, and were consequendy looked upon as
* the wise men ' in a city erf" sailors and merdiants^f In these
vessels the Phoenicians coasted along the shores of the Medi-
terranean and entered the Ocean, carrying on an acrive com-
merce with the most distant nations, establishing ccdooies^
and difiiising hi and wide their civilisation, their aits^ and
their language.
lai^ fleet and took 500 men pnsoneis. The Assviians then un^BSed
the dty for five years, catting off the inhabitants from the lirvs aad
wells whidi fonushed them vriih fresh water.
* For an aocoont of the inscriptions discovered at Koayanjik, wiikSi
contain the narrative of Sennadierib's campaign i^ainst Phcenksa ai»J
Jad.^ea, see ' Nineveh and Babylon ' ^abxid^^ edition^ ch. iL
t The 27th chapter of Ezekid contains a complete descriptioQ ai the
vessels and trade of the Tyiians, and is a most important and inta^stbi^
record of the commercial interooorse of the nations of antiquity.
XIII.] SCULPTURES AT KOUYUNJIK.
355
yVA/ATA
5599
^AAA^/sA^
as aa
n
Castle of a Maritime People, probably
the Tyrians. (Kouyunjik.)
The castles of the people, who are taking refuge in the
ships, are distinguished by the shields hung round the walls,
a peculiarity which appears
to illustrate a passage in
Ezekiel* concerning Tyre:
*The men of Arvad, with
thine army, were upon thy
walls round about, and the
Gammadims were in^ thy
towers : t/iey hanged their
sheilds upon thy walls round
about'
On the two slabs adjoining the sea-piece was represented
the besieging army. The upper part of both had been de-
stroyed; on the lower were still preserved a few Assyrian
warriors, protected by high wicker shields, discharging arrows
in the direction of the castle, and rows of prisoners with their
hands bound, led away by the conquerors.
On the eastern side of the hall was a third entrance, also
formed by human-headed bulls. Adjoining were bas-reliefs
representing a battle in a hilly country, wooded with pines or
fir-trees.
Beyond this entrance the slabs, although in some places
entire, had been so much injured by fire that only one bas-
relief was preserved. It represented a battle and the sack
of a city, and was divided into six compartments. Warriors
were dragging chariots, and driving horses and cattle out
of the castle gates, others were combating with horsemen
and footmen, and in the two lower compartments were lines
of chariots, each holding three warriors. The chariots dif-
fered in many respects, especially in their height and size,
the wheels reaching almost to the head of a man, -from
those of the earlier sculptures of Nimroud, and resemble
those seen in the Persepolitan bas-reliefs, and in the Mosaic
in the museum at Naples, which is supposed to represent
Darius defeated by Alexander the Great at the battle of
Arbela. The upper part \yas square, and not rounded, and a
projection or case in firont, instead of the quivers suspended
* Chap, xxvii. ii,
A A 2
3S6
XLWEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Char
at the sides, held the arrows of the archer. The panels
were carved and adorned wth rosettes ; the wheels had eight,
and not six spokes as in the sculptures of Nimroud, the felloes
being bound and strengthened by four metal bands.* The
ornamented framework, stretching from the fore part to the
end of the pole in the more ancient Assyrian chariots, was
replaced by a thin rod, or by a rope or leather thong, knotted
in the centre. The harness of the horses also differed.
The western entrance led into a second hall,t the four sides
An Archer. (Kouyunjik.) A Spcamum. (Kouywuik.) A Slinjer. (Kooyuiuik)
%
of which were almost entire, although the bas-reliefs had un-
fortunately suffered greatly from fire.
The slabs to the left appear to have been divided into
thre€ compartments, each occupied by rows of warriors dif-
ferently armed and accoutred, probably representing nations
who were the allies of the Assyrians. . In the first row were
archers distinguished by their short tunic, richly embroidered,
and by their head-dress, consisting of a simple fillet confining
their long hair; in the second, were slingers wearing the
Sec woodcut, at p. 358.
+ HaU C, Plan IV. p. 347.
XIII.] SCULPTURES AT KOUYUNJTK, 357
pointed helmet; and, in the third, spearmen with a circular
shield and a crested casque. The slingers held a second
stone in the left hand, and in front of them was a pile of
stones ready for use. Their slings appear to have been
formed by a double rope or leather thong.* They were
attired in armour and greaves. The spearmen wore a plain
leather or linen tunic, confined round the waist by a belt,
probably of metal. A kind of cross-belt passed over their
Scribes writing down the Number of the Slain. (Kouyunjik.)
shoulders, and appears to have been ornamented in front
with a metal disk. They also wore greaves.
On the following slabs was represented the capture by as-
sault of a city or castle, built near a river in a mountainous
country and surrounded by trees. Warriors armed with
spears were seen scaling the rocks, slaying the besieged on
the housetops, and leading off the prisoners.
On the adjoining comer-stone were represented two scribes,
one an eunuch, writing down on rolls of leather or some other
* Xeliophon frequently alludes to the expertness of the slingers of •
Assyria (see particularly Anab. lib. iii. c. 3). They used very large
stones, and could annoy the enemy, whilst out of reach of their darts
and arrows.
358
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
flexible material, the number of the heads of the slaughtered
enemy laid at their feet by the Assyrian warriors. Thus were
the heads of the seventy sons of Ahab brought in baskets to
Jezreel and laid * in two heaps at the entering in of the gate ;'*
and such is still the mode of reckoning the loss of an enemy
in the East.
The sculptures on the remainder of the wall from this slab
to an entrance formed by human-headed bulls, had been
almost entirely defaced by fire. They appear to have repre-
Sennacherib in his Chariot returning from Battle. (Kouyunjilc.)
sented the conquest by the Assyrians of a mountainous and
wooded country. Sennacherib in his chariot was receiving
the prisoners and the spoil.
Beyond the entrance, as far as the bas-reliefs could be
traced, the same subject appears to have been continued
King Sennacherib was again represented standing in his
chariot, holding a bow in his left hand, and raising his right
in token of triumph. He was accompanied by a charioteei;
and by an attendant bearing an open umbrella, from which
fell a long curtain to screen him completely from the sun.
* 2Kiiigs,x.«.
XIIL] SCULPTURES AT KOUYUNJIK. 359
His chariot was drawn by two horses, and was preceded by-
spearmen and archers. Above the king there had originally
been a short inscription, probably containing his name and
titles, and the name of the conquered country, but it had been
entirely defaced. Horsemen, crossing wooded mountains,
were separated from the group just described, by a river
abounding in fish.
The remaining bas-reliefs in this chamber appear to have
recorded similar events — ^the victories of the Assyrians, and
the triumphs of Sennacherib, their king. Only four of them
had been preserved; the rest were almost completely de-
stroyed. On two of them was represented, with great spirit,
the capture by assault of a city. Warriors, armed with spears,
were seen mounting ladders, placed against the walls ; whilst
those who manned the battlements and towers were assailed
by archers who discharged their arrows from below. The
enemy defended themselves with spears, arrows, and stones,
and carried small oblong shields. Above the castle a
short inscription recorded the name of the captured city.
Under the walls were captives, driven off by the conquerors ;
and above and below were mountains, trees, and a river, to
indicate the nature of the country.
The western entrance to this hall* led into a further cham-
ber, a part only of which I was able to explore. On two slabs
was seen a mountainous country, with a river running through
the midst .of it. The higher parts of the mountains were
clothed with forests of pines or firs, the middle region by vine-
yards, and the lower by trees represented in the usual con-
ventional manner. As the king was seen in his chariot,
accompanied by many horsemen, in the midst of a forest, it
may be conjectured that the Assyrians had opened roads
through the mountainous districts of their empire.
The remaining slabs were covered from top to bottom with
rows of warriors, spearmen, and archers, in their respective
costumes, and in martial array. Each slab must have con-
tained several hundred small figures, probably representing
disciplined troops ; for, like the Egyptians, the Assyrians were
♦ Entrance ^, Chamber C, Plan IV. p. 347,
A City taken by Assault, and the Inhabitants led away captive.
{Kouyunjik.}
CHAP. XIIL] SCULPTURES A T KOUYUNJIK. 361
evidently acquainted with military tactics and possessed or-
ganised armies. In several bas-reliefs discovered at Kouyun-
Warriors forming a Phalanx before the Walls of a besieged City.
(Kouyunjik.)
jik, troops were represented drawn up in a kind of phalanx,
or in the form of the more modem military square.
The three small chambers to the west of the hall last de-
scribed* had been so much injured by fire that few slabs in
them retained traces of sculpture. Amongst the bas-reliefs
remaining were the siege and capture of a city standing on
the banks of a river in the midst of forests and mountains,
with warriors cutting down trees to form an approach to the
walls, and carrying away the idols of the conquered people ;
a fisherman fishing with a hook and line in a pond or lake,t
and warriors receiving long lines of captives, amongst whom
were women and children riding on mules.
The wide portal, formed by the winged bulls at the upper
end of the great hall first discovered, opened into a small
chamber, which had no other entrance. J One side of it had
been completely destroyed. The remaining bas-reliefs repre-
sented the siege and sack of a city situated between two rivers,
* Chambers D, E, and F, Plan IV. p. 347.
t In the British Museum. % Chamber G, Plan IV. p. 347.
363
SIS EVE H ASD ITS REMAISS. [Chap.
in the midst of groves of palm trees, and, consequently, it may
be conjectured, in some part of Mesopotamia. An inscrip-
tion above the captured city contains its name. Sennacherib
was represented, several times, superintending in his chariot
the operations of the siege. The besiegers were cutting down
the palms to open and clear the approaches to the walls.
A part only of the chamber to the east of the great hall *
was uncovered Many of the sculptures had been inten-
tionally destroyed with some sharp instrument, and all had
suffered, more or less, from fire. On some could be traced
warriors urging their horses at full speed, and archers on foot
turning backwards to discharge their arrows at their pursuers.
Beneath the horsemen were rows of chariots and led horses.
A Horseman pursued by Assyrian AVarriors. (Kouyunjik.)
In their trappings and harness the horses of the Kouyunjik
bas-reliefs differ from those represented in the sculptures from
Nimroud. Their heads are generally surmounted by a high
arched crest, and bells or tassels are hung round their necks;
or, as at Khorsabad, high plumes, generally three in number,
* Chamber H, Plan IV. p. 347.
XIII.] SCULPTURES FOUND BY MR, ROSS, 363
rise between their ears. After my departure from Mosul, Mr.
Ross continued the excavations in this chamber, and found
several other slabs, and an entrance formed by four winged
lions. The bas-reliefs appear to have been part of the series
previously uncovered, and represented chariots, horsemen,
archers, and warriors in mail. The country, in which the
events recorded took place, was indicated by a river and palm
trees. In front of these bas-reliefs he discovered an immense
square slab, which he conjectures to have been a dais or altar,
Enemies of the Assyrians discharging their
Arrows behind them. (Kouyunjik.)
Head-dress of a Riding Horse.
(Kouyunjik.)
resembling that in the great hall of the N. W. palace at Nim-
roud.*
Such were the discoveries at Kouyunjik, during my first
expedition to Assyria. f From the dimensions of some of the
halls, and the variety and elaborate character of the sculptures,
it was evident that the ruins were those of a palace of great
extent and magnificence. The mound upon which it stood
was once washed by the river Tigris. Then also the edifice,
* See p. 97.
t The discoveries subsequently made in the mound are fully described
in my * Nineveh and Babylon.'
3^4
NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
above which the village of Nebbi Yunus now stands, rose
above the stream, and the two palaces were enclosed in
one vast square by lofty walls cased with stone, their towers
adorned with sculptured alabaster, and their gateways formed
by colossal human-headed bulls.
As I have hitherto described the ruins as they were dis-
covered during the excavations, it may not be here out of
place to add a few words on the subject of the architecture
of the Assyrians, and to endeavour to restore, as far as the
remains will permit, the fallen palaces.
Groom leading Horses. (Khorsabad.)
The architecture of a people must naturally depend xipon
the materials afforded by the country, and upon the object
of their buildings. The descriptions, already given in the
course of this work of the ruined edifices of ancient Assyria,
are sufficient to show that Assyrian architecture differed, in
many respects, from that of any other nation with which we
are acquainted. Had the Assyrians, so fertile in invention,
so skilful in the arts, and so ambitious of great works, dwelt
in a country as rich in stone and costly granites and marbles
XIII.] ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE, 365
as Egypt or India, it can scarcely be doubted that they
would have equalled, if not excelled, the inhabitants of those
countries in the magnitude of their pyramids, and in the
magnificence of their temples and palaces. But their prin-
cipal settiements were in the alluvial plains watered by the
Tigris and Euphrates. On the banks of those great rivers,
which spread fertility through a vast extent of rich land, and
afford the means of easy and expeditious intercourse between
distant provinces, they founded their first cities, choosing for
their site those beautiful plains, unbroken by a single emi-
nence, which stretch from the feet of the Armenian hills.
The earliest habitations, constructed when little progress
had been made in the art of building, were probably but one
story in height In this respect the dwelling of the ruler
scarcely differed from the meanest hut. It soon became
necessary, however, that the temples of the gods, and the
palaces of the kings, depositories at the same time of the
national records, should be rendered more conspicuous than
the humble edifices by which they were surrounded. The
nature of the country also required that the castle, the place
of refuge in times of danger, or the permanent residence of
a garrison, should be raised above the city so as to afford the
best means of resistance to an enemy. As there were no
natural eminences in the plains, the inhabitants constructed
artificial mounds upon which to erect such public edifices.
Hence the origin of those vast, ^olid structures of earth and
brick which have defied the hand of time; and, with their
grass-covered summits, and furrowed sides, rise like natural
hills in the Assyrian plains..
Let us picture to ourselves the migration of one of the
primitive families of the human race, seeking for some spot
favourable to a permanent settlement, where water abounded,
and where the land, already productive without cultivation,
promised an ample return to the labour of the husbandman.
They may have followed him who went out of the land of
Shinar, to found new habitations in the north;* or they may
have descended firom the mountains of Armenia; whence
came, according to the Chaldaean historian, the builders of
* Genesis, x. 11.
366 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
the cities of Assyria,* It was not until they reached the
banks of the great rivers, if they came from the high lands,
or only whilst they followed their course, if they journeyed
from the south, that they could find a supply of water ade-
quate to the permanent wants of a large community. The
plain, bounded to the west and south by the Tigris and Zab,
from its fertility, and from the ready means of irrigation af-
forded by two noble streams, may have been first chosen as
a resting-place \ and there were laid the foundations of a city,
destined to be the capital of the Eastern world.
The materials for building were at hand, and in their pre-
paration required neither much labour nor ingenuity. The
soil, an alluvial deposit, was rich and tenacious. The builders
moistened it with water, and, adding a little chopped straw
that it might be more firmly bound together, they formed it
into squares, which, when dried by the heat of the sim, served
them as bricks. In that climate it required but two or three
days to make and dry such bricks. Such were the earliest
building materials ; and they are used to this day almost ex-
clusively by the inhabitants of the same country. In Egypt,
too, they were employed at the remotest period; and the
Egyptians, to harass their Jewish captives, withheld the straw
without which their bricks could not preserve their form and
consistency, and their labour would be vain.t
Huts for the people were speedily raised, and roofed with
the branches and boughs of trees from the banks of the river.
The inhabitants of the new settlement now sought to build
a place of refuge in case of attack, or a dwelling-place for
their leader, or a temple to their gods. In order to raise
the edifice above the plain, and to render it conspicuous
among the surrounding habitations, it was erected on an
artificial mound constructed for the purpose of earth and
rubbish, or of sun-dried bricks.}
* Xithurus and his followers : Berosus, apud Euseb. The similarity
between the history of this Chaldaean hero and that of the Scriptural
Noah is curious, and points to one and the same tradition.
+ Exodus, V.
X Such is still the custom amongst the inhabitants of Assyria. When
some families of a nomadic tribe wish to settle and to form a village, they
choose one of the ancient mounds which abound in the plains. On its
XIIL] ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE, 367
The palaces and temples appear to have been at the same
time public monuments, in which were preserved the records
or archives of the nation, carved on stone. In them were
represented in sculpture the exploits of the kings, and the
forms of the divinities ; whilst the history of the people, and
invocations to their gods, were inscribed in written characters
upon the walls. It was necessary, therefore, to use in the build-
ing, some material upon which such figures and inscriptions
could be carved. The plains of Mesopotamia, as well as the
low lands between the Tigris and the hill-country, abound in •
a kind of coarse alabaster or gypsum. Large masses of it
everywhere protrude in low ridges from the alluvial soil, or
are exposed in the gullies formed by winter torrents. It yields
readily to the chisel, and its greyish colour is agreeable to the
eye. Thus whilst offering few difficulties to the sculptor, it
was an ornament to the edifice in which it was placed. This
alabaster cut into slabs, firom eight to ten feet high, four to
six wide, and about one foot thick, served as a kind of panel-
ling or wainscoting to the walls of sun-dried bricks. On the
back of each slab was carved an inscription recording the
name, title, and genealogy of the royal founder of the edifice,
and they were kept in their places and held together by
iron or copper cramps. The comers of the chambers were
generally formed by one stone ; and all the walls were either
at right angles, or parallel to each other. Upon the slabs
were sculptured the bas-reliefs and inscriptions.
At the principal entrances to the chambers were placed
gigantic winged bulls or lions with human heads, typical
forms of their gods. The smaller doorways were generally
guarded by colossal figures of divinities, or priests sculptured
in relief There were no remains of doors or gates ; but metal
hinges have been discovered and holes for bolts exist in many
of the slabs forming the entrances. On all these slabs, in the
summit they erect a rude castle for refuge and defence against the
wandering Bedouins, and the huts are built at its foot. The Persians
who occupied the country after the fall of the Assyrian empire, and the
Arab conquerors who succeeded them, seem to have followed the same
plan. There are few ancient mounds containing Assyrian ruins upon
which castles, towns, or villages have not at some period been built.
Such are Arbela, Tel Afer, Nebbi Yunus, &c
368 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
oldest palace of Nimroud', were marks of some dark fluid, re-
sembling blood, which appears to have been daubed on the
stone. I have not been able to ascertain the nature of this
fluid; but its appearance cannot fail to call to mind the
Jewish ceremony of placing the blood of the sacrifice on the
lintel of the doorway. Under the pavement slabs, at the en-
trances, were deposited small figures of the gods, usually in
baked clay, probably as a protection to the building.* Some-
times, as in the N.W. palace at Nimroud, alabaster tablets,
on which were inscribed the name and title of the king, with
a short notice of the principal events of his" reign, as a record
of the time of the erection of the building, were biuied in the
foundations, or embedded in the walls.
The upper part of the walls of the chambers, above the
alabaster slabs, was built of sun-dried bricks covered by a thin
coat of plaster, on which were painted figures and ornamental
firiezes, or was faced with kiln-burnt bricks enamelled with
bright colours. It is to these upper walls that the complete
covering up of the building, and the consequent preservation
of the bas-reliefs, may be attributed ; for when once the edi-
fice had been deserted they fell in, and the unbaked bricks
filled up the rooms and encased the sculptured slabs. The
walls of many chambers at Nimroud were built entirely of
sun-dried bricks, and painted with figures and ornaments.
The mode of roofing the palaces and lighting the chambers,
many of which were in the very centre of the building, with
no other apparent inlet for light but the door, is one of the
most difficult questions in Assyrian architecture. I am ia-
clined, on the whole, to agree with Mr. Fergusson in thinking
that light was admitted through galleries, or open rows of low
pilasters at the top of the rooms, and that wooden columns
were sometimes used to support the roof in the larger halls-f
* It has already been mentioned, that these small figures in unbaked
day, were found beneath the pavement at all the entrances at Khorsa-
bad. They were only discovered at Nimroud, in the most recent
palace, in the S. W. comer of the mound.
+ The subject is very fully treated and ably illustrated in his work,
entitled * the Palaces of Nineveh and Persepolis restored,* which contains,
at the same time, many valuable suggestions on the arts and architecture
of the Assyrians.
XIII.] MODE OF BUILDING. 369
It is remarkable that no remains of stone columns have been
discovered. Unless columns of some kind were employed,
the halls exceeding a certain width must have been left open
to the sky. Indeed it is very probable that some of the
larger halls were more like the open courts of the houses of
modem Mosul and Baghdad, the rays of the sun having
been excluded from them by awnings and tapestry. As the
Assyrians were well acquainted with the principle of the
arch, it is not impossible that some of the smaller cham-
bers may have been vaulted.
The halls and rooms were paved with alabaster slabs, fre-
quently covered with inscriptions recording the name and
genealogy of the king, and the chief events of his reign, or
with large baked tiles, also bearing a short inscription. The
alabaster slabs were laid upon bitumen. The bricks or tiles
were generally in two layers, one above the other, with sand
between and beneath them, probably for the purpose of ex-
cluding damp. Between the lions and bulls forming the
entrances, was usually one large inscribed or ornamented
pavement slab.
The drains discovered beneath almost every chamber in
the N.W. palace at Nimroud joined a large or main drain,
probably running from under the great hall into the river,
which flowed at the foot of the mound when the edifice was
built.
The interior of the Assyrian palaces must have been as
magnificent as imposing. I have led the reader through their
ruins, and he may judge from them of the impression which
the buildings when in all their glory were calculated to make
upon one who, in the days of old, entered for the first time
the abode of the Assyrian kings. Passing through a portal
guarded by colossal lions or bulls, he found himself surrounded
by the sculptured records of the empire. Batties, sieges,
triumphs, the exploits of the chase, and the ceremonies of
religion, were portrayed on the walls — sculptured in alabaster,
and painted in gorgeous colours. Above the sculptures were
painted other events — the Ipng, attended by his eunuchs and
warriors, receiving his prisoners, entering into alliances with
distant monarchs, or performing holy rites. These pictures
BB
370 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS. [Chap.
were enclosed in coloured borders or friezes of elaborate and
elegant design, in which were introduced the emblematic tree,
winged bulls, and fanciful animals. At the upper end of the
hall was the colossal figure of the king in adoration before the
Supreme Deity, or receiving from his attendants the sacred
cup. He was attended by warriors bearing his arms, and
ministered to by winged priests or presiding divinities. His
robes, and those of his followers, were adorned with groups
of human figures, animals, and flowers.
The ceilings were gorgeously painted, or inlaid with ivory
and precious woods. The beams were of cedar wood, and
gold leaf and plates of gold and silver were probably used
with profiision in the decorations.*
These edifices, as has been shown, were great national
monuments, upon the walls of which were represented in
sculpture, or recorded by inscriptions, the chronicles of the
empire. He who entered them might thus read the history,
and learn the glory and triumphs of the nation. They served,
at the same time, to bring continually to the remembrance of
those who assembled within them on festive occasions, or for
the celebration of religious ceremonies, the deeds of their
ancestors, and the power and majesty of their gods.
The exterior walls of these palaces were either cased with
sculptured slabs or painted. On the outside of the principal
palace of Babylon, assigned by tradition to Semiramis, were
portrayed, according to ancient writers, men and animals, and
on the towers hunting scenes, in which were represented Semi-
ramis herself on horseback, throwing a javelin at a pantlier,
* Sun-dried bricks, with remains of gilding upon them, were dis-
covered at Nimroud. Herodotus states that the battlements of the in-
nermost walls of the royal palace at Ecbatana, the ornaments of which
were most probably imitated from the edifices of Assyria, were plated
with silver and gold (lib. i. c. 98). The precious met^ appear to have
been lavishly used in decorating the palaces of the East Even the roofe
of the palace at Ecbatana are said to have been covered with silver tiles.
The gold, silver, ivory, and precious woods in the ceilings of the palaces
of Babylon, attributed to Semiramis, are fi-equently mentioned by ancient
writers. Zephaniah (ii. 14) alludes to the * cedar work * of the roof;
and in Jeremiah (xxii. 14) chambers * ceiled with cedar and painted
with vermilion * are mentioned. Sometimes the walls and ceilings were
panelled or wainscoted with this precious wood, (i Kings, vi 15, vii 3.)
XIII.] SACRED CHARACTER OF KING. 371
and Ninus slaying a lion with his lance.* The seven walls
of Ecbatana, according to Herodotus,t were each painted of
a different colour ; the outer was white, the next black, the
third purple, the fourth blue, the fifth orange, and the two
inner had their battlements plated, one with silver and the
other with gold.J Walls thus sculptured and painted must,
in the clear atmosphere and brilliant sunshine of Assyria,
have been peculiarly pleasing to the eye, and have had a
gorgeous appearance even from afar.
Were these magnificent mansions palaces or temples % or,
whilst the king combined the character of a temporal ruler
with that of high-priest, did his residence unite die palace,
the temple, and a national monument raised to perpetuate the
memory of the triumphs and conquests of the nation % These
are questions which cannot yet be satisfactorily answered.
We can only judge by analogy. A very superficial examina-
tion of the sculptures will prove the sacred character of the
king. The priests or presiding deities (whichsoever the winged
figures so frequently found on the Assyrian monuments may
be) are represented as waiting upon, or ministering to, him ;
above his head are seen the winged figure within the circle,
the emblem of Ashur, the Supreme Deity, and the sun, moon,
planets, and other symbols of the gods. As in Egypt, he may
have been regarded as the representative, on earth, of the
Deity, receiving his power directly firom the gods, and being
the organ of communication between them and his subjects. §
The intimate connection between the public and private lif^
of the Assyrians and their religion is abundantly proved by
the bas-reliefs. As amongst most Eastern nations, not only
pubhc and social duties appear to have been more or less in-
fluenced by reUgion, or to have been looked upon as typical,
but all the acts of the king, whether in peace or war, were
* Diodorus Siculus, lib. ii. + Lib. i. c. 98.
X Herod, lib. i. c 98. These colours, with the number seven of the
walls, have evidently allusion to the heavenly bodies and their courses.
Sir Henry Rawlinson believes that he found these colours on the w'alls of
the different terraces, seven in number, of which remains exist in the well-
known ruins of the Birs Nimroud, near Babylon.
§ Diodorus Siculus, lib. L c. 90; and Wilkinson's 'Ancient Egyptians,*
vol. i. p. 245, and vol. ii. p. 67.
B 6 2
372 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
evidently connected with the national faith, and were believed
to be under the special protection and superintendence of a
Deity. Hence the emblem of the Supreme God is repre-
sented above his head in battle, during his triumphs, and when
he celebrates the sacred ceremonies. The embroideries upon
his robes and the ornaments upon his weapons, have likewise
mythic meanings. His contests with the lion and other wild
animals denote not only his prowess and skill, but his superioi
power and wisdom. The architectural decorations of his
palace have the same religious and typical signification. All
the edifices hitherto discovered in Assyria have precisely the
same character in this respect; so that we have most pro-
bably the palace and temple combined ; for in them the deeds
of the king, and of the nation, are united with religious sym-
bols, and with the statues of the gods.
We have no means of ascertaining the nature of the private
dwellings of the Assyrians, nor of learning any particulars con
cerning their internal economy and arrangement No such
houses have been preserved either in Assyria Proper or Baby-
lonia, their complete disappearance being attributable to the
perishable materials of which they were constructed ; for al-
though the palace-temples were of such extraordinary magni-
ficence, the bulk of the people appear to have lodged, as in
Egypt, and indeed in Greece and Rome, in dwellings built
of sun-dried bricks, for the most part mean and small in size,
which, when once abandoned, soon fell to dust, leaving no
traces behind.
Of the walls of the city, or rather of its principal quarters
(for the entire city was not, I am convinced, surrounded by
one continuous wall), nothing now remains but the quad-
rangles, formed by earthen mounds or ramparts, enclosing
the ruins of Nimroud, Kliorsabad, and Kouyunjik. In some
places the earth and rubbish still conceal the basement of
hewn stones, upon which rose the lofty structure of sun-dried
brick, the wonder and admiration of the ancients.* The
* Such, according to Xenophon, were the walls of Larissa and Mespila
(Nimroud and Kouyunjik), the plinth or lower part of the wall of which
was 50 feet high, and the upper 100. The stone, he says, was full of
shells, a statement fully borne out by the remains of the walls at Kou-
yunjik, which are of a fossiliferous limestone. (Anab. lib. 3.)
XI 1 1.] ASSYRIAN ARCHITECTURE, 373
dimensions of the walls of Nineveh and Babylon, as given by
Herodotus, Xenophon, and Diodorus Siculus, may be con-
sidered fabulous. According to those authors the walls of
Nineveh were 100 feet high, wide enough for three chariots
to pass abreast, and furnished with 1500 towers, each 200 feet
in height, and those of Babylon nearly 300 feet high and 75
thick.
In the edifices of Assyria reeds and bitumen were not em-
ployed, as at Babylon, to cement the layers of bricks, although
both materials are found in abundance in the country.* A
tenacious clay, moistened and mixed with a little chopped
straw, served, as it still does in the neighbourhood of Mosul,
for mortar, in the walls of sun-dried bricks. Kiln-burnt bricks
were rarely used in Assyria.
Although there is but little difference in the general cha-
racter of the architecture of the various buildings explored in
Assyria, the change which had taken place in the manners,
religion, and dress of the inhabitants of the country between
the foundation of the N. W. palace at Nimroud and of the
edifices at Khorsabad and Kouyunjik is evident from even a
cursory examination of the sculptures discovered in those
buildings. The difference, indeed, is so considerable that
several centuries must have elapsed between the erection of
the earliest and latest palaces, and some great change must
have taken place in the character of the people, attributable,
perhaps, to intermixture with some foreign race. This fact
has now been proved beyond question by the interpretation
of the cuneiform inscriptions. It would seem that the earliest
edifices are to be attributed to monarchs who reigned a
thousand or nine hundred years before Christ, whilst the
latest were built by kings of a dynasty which included tlie
Sennacherib and Esarhaddon of Scripture, and reigned two
or three centuries later. As in Egypt, the most ancient monu-
ments show the purest taste and the highest knowledge of art;
and we find in Assyria that phenomenon which is to be re-
marked in the history of all nations, ancient or modem, of a
gradual decline of art, after a state of comparative perfection.
* Bitumen was, however, sometimes used as a cement for stones, and
even burnt bricks.
374 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
In the small objects, such as bronzes and ivories, discovered
in the ruins, there is an Egyptian character, unknown in the
earlier sculptures. This would indicate a foreign influence,
which may have been the principal source of the change I
have pointed out, and which may be traced either to conquest
or to alliances between the royal families of Assyria and
Egypt
By the middle of the month of June my labours in Assyria
had drawn to a close. The funds assigned by Parliament to
the Trustees of the British Museum for the excavations had
been expended, and further researches were not, for the pre-
sent at least, contemplated. I prepared, therefore, to turn
my steps homewards, after an absence of many years. The
ruins of Nimroud had been again covered up, and its palaces
were once more hidden from the eye. The sculptures taken
from them had been safely removed to Busrah, and were
awaiting their final transport to England. The inscriptions,
which promise to instruct us in the history and civilisation of
one of tiie most ancient nations of the earth, had been care-
fully copied. On looking back upon the few months that I
had passed in Assyria, I could not but feel some satisfaction
at the result of my labours. Scarcely a year before, with the
exception of the ruins of Khorsabad, not one Assyrian monu-
ment was known. Almost sufficient materials had now been
obtained to enable us to restore much of the lost history of
the Assyrian empire, and to confirm the vague traditions
handed down to us from remote antiquity of the learning and
civilisation of its people. The time of the discovery of these
remains was singularly opportune. Had these palaces been
exposed to view by chance some years before, no European
would have been there to protect them from complete de-
struction, or to preserve a record of their existence. Had
they been discovered a little later, it is highly probable that
there would have been insurmountable objections to the re-
moval of even any part of their contents. It was consequently
just at the right moment that they were disinterred ; and we
have been fortunate enough to acquire the most convincing
and lasting evidence of that magnificence and power, which
m.ade Nineveh the wonder of the ancient world, and her fall
XIII.] FAREWELL ENTERTAINMENT, 375
the theme of the prophets, as the most signal instance of
Divine vengeance. Without the evidence that these monu-
ments afford, we might almost have doubted that the great
city ever existed, so completely * has she become a desolation
and a waste.*
Before my departure I was desirous of giving a last enter-
tainment to my workmen, and to those who had kindly aided
me in my labours. On the western side of Kouyunjik there
is a small village, belonging, with the mound, to a former
slave of a Pasha of the Abd-el-Jeleel family, who had received
his liberty, and the land containing the ruins, as a reward for
long and faithful services. This village was chosen for the
festivities, and tents for the accommodation of my guests
were pitched around it Large platters filled with boiled rice,
and divers inexplicable messes, only appreciated by Arabs,
and those who have lived with them — the chief components
being garlic and sour milk — were placed before the various
groups of men and women, who squatted in circles on the
ground. Dances were then commenced, and were carried on
through the greater part of the night, the Tiyari and the Arabs
joining in them, or relieving each other by turns. The dancers
were happy and enthusiastic, and kept up a constant shout-
ing. The quiet Christian ladies of Mosul, who had scarcely
before this occasion ventured beyond the walls of the town,
gazed with wonder and delight on the scene ; lamenting, no
doubt, that the domestic arrangements of their husbands did
not permit more frequent indulgence in such gaieties.
At the conclusion of the entertainment I spoke a few
words to the workmen, inviting any who had been wronged,
or illused, to come forward and receive such redress as it was
in my power to afford, and expressing my satisfaction at the
successful termination of our labours without a single ac-
cident One Sheikh Khalaf, a very worthy man, who was
usually the spokesman on such occasions, answered for his
companions. They had lived, he said, under my shadow,
and, God be praised ! no one had cause to complain. Now
that I was leaving, they should leave also, and seek the dis-
tant banks of the Khabour, where at least they would be far
from the Turk^, and be able, to enjoy the little they had
376 NINEVEH AND ITS REMAINS, [Chap.
saved. All they wanted was each man a teskerb, or note, to
certify that he had been in my service. This would not only
be some protection to them, but they would show my writing
to their children, and would tell them of the days they had
passed at Nimroud. Please God, I should return to the
Jebours, and live in tents "with them on their old pasture
grounds, where there were as many ruins as at Nimroud,
plenty of plunder within reach, and gazelles, wild boars, and
lions for the chase. After Sheikh Khalaf had concluded,
the women advanced in a body and made a similar address.
I gave a few presents to the principal workmen and their
wives, and all were highly satisfied with their treatment.
A few days afterwards, the preparations for my departure
were complete. I paid my last visit to Essad Pasha, caUed
upon the principal people of the town, bid adieu to my friends,
and on the 24th of June was ready to leave Mosul.
I was accompanied on my journey to Constantinople by
Mr. Hormuzd Rassam, Ibrahim Agha, and the Bairakdar,
and by several members of the household of the late Pasha ;
who were ready, in return for their own food and that of their
horses, to serve me on the road. We were joined by many
other travellers, who had been waiting for an opportunity to
travel to the north in company with a sufficiently strong
party. The country was at this time very insecure. The
Turkish troops had marched against Beder Khan Bey, who
had openly declared his independence, and defied the au-
thority of the Sultan. The failure of the crops had brought
parties of Bedouins abroad, and scarcely a day passed with-
out the plunder of a caravan and the murder of traveUers.
The Pasha sent a body of irregular horse to accompany me
as far as the Turkish camp, which I wished to visit on my
way. With this escort, and with my own party, all well armed
and prepared to defend themselves, I had no cause to ap-
prehend any accident
Mr. and Mrs. Rassam, all the European residents, and
many of the principal Christian gentlemen of Mosul, rode
out with me to some distance fi-om the town. On the op-
posite side of the river, at the foot of the bridge, were the
ladies who had assembled to bid me farewell Beyond them
XIIL] LEAVE MOSUL, 377
were the wives and daughters of my workmen, who clung to
my horse, many of them shedding tears as they kissed my
hand. The greater part of the Arabs insisted upon walking
as far as Tel Kef with me. In this village supper had been
prepared for the party. Old Gouriel, the Kiayah, still re-
joicing in his drunken leer, was there to receive us. We sat
on the house-top till midnight The horses were then loaded
and saddled. I bid a last farewell to my Arabs, and started
on the first stage of our long journey to Constantinople.
INDEX.
ABD
A BD-ALLAH, Sultan, tomb
^ of, i8, 326
Abd'rubbou, chief of the Jebour
Arabs, 56, 293
Abd-ul-Summit Bey, 124, 127
Abd-ur-rahman, sheikh of the
Abou Salman Arabs, 32, 38,
81, 311. His reflections, 315
Abou Maria, mound of, 216, 217
Abou Salman Arabs, 32, 38, 81,
313-317
Adi, Sheikh, visits to the tomb of,
115, 182, 206
Ain Sifni, village of, 115
Alabaster vases found, 241, 242
Albanian irregulars, 121. An Al-
banian chief, 122
Ali Bey, the Yezidi chief, 180
Ali Effendi, 62, 65
Ali, Mullah, raft contractor, 322
Alkosh, rock tombs of, 171. Vil-
lage of, 171
Altar, or tripod, at Khorsabad,ii3
Amadiyah, valley of, 118, 167.
Galls of, 118. Town and fort
of, 119. Its unhealthiness, 120
American mission to the Nesto-
rians, 133
Amsha, wife of Sheikh Sofuk, 71
Arab encampment, 56, 57, 63,
292, 297. A repast, 63. Arab
tribe moving, 65, 297. A feast,
81. A dance, 82, 314. Excite-
ment of the Arabs at the disco-
veries of the sculptures, 104.
Their women, 257. Their hos-
pitality, 259. Seizure of a
sheikh, 262. Arab life, 298.
Burial-places, 299. Plunderers,
327
Arbela, city of, 57
Arch, discovery of an, 290
BEH
Archers, Assyrian, 234, 356
Architecture, Assyrian, 364
Architectural ornaments, 46
Armour, relics of, found, 24 1
Arrow-headed writing, xxiii.
Arts, highest perfection of the, at
the earliest period, 373
Asheetha, Nestorian village of,
128, 129. Industry of the inha-
bitants, 132. Return to, 164
Aslani, the Nestorian girl, 136
Asses, wild, 224
Assyria, writers on the history of,
xvii. Notices of, in the Bible,
xviii.
Awad, or Abd-Allah, sheikh of
thejehesh, 15, 17, 19
"D AADRI, Yezidi village of, 177
■^ Baal, the Assyrian deity, 287
Baasheikeh, excavations in the
great mound of, 35
Babel, imaginary representations of
the tower of, xxii.
Babylon, mystery and dread at-
tached to the ruins of, xx. Mr.
Rich's explorations, xx. xxi.
Bashi-bozuks, 25 note •
Bas-reliefs, first discovery of, 28
Battering-ram, with movable tower,
92. At Nimroud, 279
Baz, 157. Pass into, 156
Be-Alatha, village of, 160
Beder Khan Bey, 129 notgy 130,
158. His massacre in the Nes-
torian mountains, 174. His
banishment to Candia, 175
Bebozi, visit to the Chaldaean village
of, 117
Behistun, -rock-tablets of, deci-
phered, XXV.
38o
INDEX,
BER
HAM
Berwari, village of, 124
Bircham, the "goulama d'Mira,"
155
Birijai, village of, 147
Bitumen pits, 292
Boats in bas-reliefs, 239
Botta, M., his excavations at
Kouyunjik, 7. His discovery
of Khorsabad, 7, 8, 112
Brick, a genealogical, discovered,
243. Sun-dried bricks, 366.
Gilded bricks, 370 note
Bridge, a wicker, over the Zab,
143
British Museum, the first Assyrian
collection in the, 106
Bull, winged human -headed, 88.
Winged bulls discovered at
Nimroud, 243. Removal of a,
307. Bulls found at Kouyunjik,
345
Butter, Arab mode of making, 73
/^AMELS, great herds of, 63
^^ Canal, an ancient, $8, 59
Caravan, a, 61, 62
Cartouches, ivory, discovered, 268
Castle of a maritime people, 355
Chair, an Assyrian, 170
Chaldsean villages, 126. Lan-
guage, 148 note
Challek, village of, 165
Chariots, Assyrian, 237, 238.
Jewish, 238
Chase, the, in Assyria, 94
Chonba, village of, 162
Cidaris, or . head-dress of the Per-
sian monarchs, loi note
Cities, ancient, in the East, 339,
340. Assault of a city, 359, 360
Copper mines in the Tiyari moun-
tains, 165
Ctesias, his history of Assyria, xvii.
Cuneiform writing, age of the, 8.
The term, xxiii. Clue to the
decipherment of the, xxiv.
"T) AGGERS, handles of, 87
"*-^ Dam, ancient, across the
Tigris at Nimroud, 6
Dances, Arab, 82, 314. Yezidi,
188, 212, 213
Daoud Agha, the Yuz-bashi, 2$,
30, 32
Darius, inscriptions on the palace
and tomb of, xxv.
Dathan, Sofuk's adherent, 74
Debke, or dance of the Arabs, 82,
314
Deity, an Assyrian, 169. Emblems
of the, 230, 231, 332
Devil-worshippers. See Yezidts
Diodorus Sicidus, on Assyrian
history, xvii.
Dohuk, town of, 168
Dress, beauty of the Assyrians',
100. Of the King, loi
Drought in Mesopotamia, 306
PAGLE-HEADED figure dis-
■'-^ covered, 47. Probably the
god Nisroch, 48
Elias, Mar, monastery of, 62
Ergub, village of, 157
Essad, Pasha, of Mosul, 266
Eunuchs, dress of, 102, 103.
Amongst the Assyrians, 232
Excavation in Assyria, proper
method of, 343
Ezekiel, his description of Assyrian
sculptures, 331
FERH AN, son of Sheikh Sofuk,
67,68
Fertility of ancient Assyria, 304
Fetters, iron and brass, 349, 350
Footstool of the King, 102, 103
ri ALLEYS, bas-relief of, 351
^-* Ghara mountams, the, 118
Ghusub, Wadi, 63
Glass vase discovered, 242
Gouriel, Kiayah of Tel Kef, 173
Grant, Dr., at Asheetha, 133
Groom leading horses, 364
Gunduktha, village of, 159
TTADDEDEEN Arabs, 63
*-^ Hammum Ali, village of, 3
INDEX,
381
HAR
KUR
Harem of an Arab sheikh, 71
Harisa, 210
Hather, Al, visit to the ruins of,
61, 75
Hayis, the Nestorian hamlet, 124
Head, gigantic human, discovered,
49,50
Helmets, Assyrian, relics of, 241.
Shapes of, 276
Herodotus, his history of Assyria,
xvii.
Hincks, Dr., his decipherment of
the cuneiform character, xxv.
Horsemen, Assyrian, 234, 277
Horses, Arab, 66, 74. Assyrian,
235. Head-dress of riding-
horses, 363, 364
House, an Assyrian, 339. The pri-
vate dwellings of the people, 372
Hunting scenes on the bas-reliefs,
92. Hunting expeditions of the
Persians, according to Xenophon,
94
Hussein Bey, chief of the Yezidis,
177. Naming of his son, 179
Hytas, or Bashi-bozuks, 25 note
IBRAHIM AGHA, the Cawass,
84, 135, 265. His flight, 161
Idols carried in procession by As-
syrian warriors, 286
India, symbols similar to Assyrian,
found on the sacred monuments
of, 98 note
Inscription on Assyrian pottery,
241. On the palaces of Darius
and Xerxes, the tomb of Darius,
and at Behistun, xxv. Custom
of engraving inscriptions on stone
and baked clay, xxv.
lonunco, the Nestorian, 1 11, 127
Irrigation, Arab mode of, 254.
The artificial, of ancient Assyria,
304
Ismail Agha, the Albanian irregular
chief, 122, 123
Ismail Bey, the mutesellim, 168
Ismail Pasha, 33, 35, 38
Ismail, Melek, his heroism, 163
Ivory ornaments, discovery of, 268
JARS, discovery of, 251
Jebour Arabs, 55. Sheikhs
of the, 56
Jerid, or mimic fight, 1 26
Jerraiyah, ruins of, 21
Jindi, Sheikh, 207
Jonah, tomb of, xx.
I/' AIDI, customs of the, 213
•'^ Kalah Sherghat, ruins of, 3.
Excavations at, 291, 298. Tombs
at, 299
Kaloni, or Kalah-oni, visit to the
Turkish village of, 116
Karamles, excavations at, 35
Kasha Bodaca, 153
— Hormuzd, 147, 148
— Kana, 136-138
— Mendi, the priest, 1 19
— Oraho, 164
— Yusuf, 136
Keshaf, ruins of, 57
Kesta, pass of, 165
Khalaf, the Bedouin chief, 64
Khorsabad, M. Botta's discovery
of, 7, 112. Visit to, 112. Archi-
tecture of, 113
Khoshaba, Melek, the Tiyari chief,
144. His daughter, 145
Khoura, mountain of, 159
King, sacredness of the person of
the, in Assyria, 86, 371. Sacred
emblems surrounding his neck,
98. His dress, loi. Discovery
of a bas-relief of the, at Nimroud,
267. The King's head-dress,
found at Kouyunjik, 349
Kouyunjik, Mr. Rich's examina-
tion of the great mound of, xxi.
M. Botta's excavations at, 7.
The author's excavations at, 96.
Discovery of a building in a
mound near, 108. The ruins at,
335. Excavations at, 341. Dis-
covery of a palace at, 344. The
walls of the ancient city of Mes-
pUa, 372
Kumri, or Gumri, castle of, 125
Kurdish musicians, 81. The tribe
of Missouri, 115. A Bey, 127.
332
INDEX.
KUR
ORK
A saint, 167. A chief, 168.
Activity of the Kurdish women,
141 note
Kunlish mountains, 115
Kurdistan, rock- tombs of, 171
T ARISSA, walls of, 372 note
■*-' Lions, winged, - human-
; , (' headed, 52, 53, 249>lCopper
y ' lions discovered, 89. On the
banks of the Tigris, 294. In
Khuzistan, 294. Removal of,
308, 320
Lion hunts, bas-reliefs of, 92, 311
Longworth, Mr., at Nimroud, 263
TV/TALTHAIYAH, village of,
^^ 169. Rock sculptures at,
169
Mar Shamoun, the Chaldaean pa-
triarch, 130
Marth d'Kasra, village of, 162
Melek, the Nestorian title of, 144
Melek Taous of the Yezidis, 196
Mesopotamia in spring, 56, 64.
In summer, 85
Mespila, walls of, 372 note
Mia, the villages of, 126
Miniyanish, massacre at, 139
Mirkan, village of, 219
Missouri, the Kurdish tribe of,
"5
Mitre, or tiara, of the King, loi
Mohammed Agha, 226
Mohammed, Pasha, of Mosul, 12.
His cruelties, 13. Disgraced, 33
Monster, a winged, (Sscovered,
345
Mormons, sheikh of the Hadde-
deen, 21, 63
Mosul, arrivd at, 3. The sar-
daubs, or cellars, of, io8. De-
parture from, 376
Murghi, massacre at, 139
Music of the Yezidis, 191, 192
VTAHUM the Prophet, tomb
-^^ of, 171
Naifa, village of, 14
Nasr, Sheikh, Yezidi chief priest,
182, 183, 208
Neck ornaments of the King, 98,
lOI
Negoub, tunnel of, 59. Canal of,
58.59
Nejris, Sofiik's rival, 71. Mur-
dered, 77
Nestorians, 23. Visit to the, 129.
The massacre, 129 note^ 131. A
Nestorian house, 13 1. Influence
of the Nestorians on the civilisa-
tion of the East, 137, 138 mote.
The scene of the massacre, 140,
Origin of the name, 149. Their
doctrines, 149, 150. A Nes-
torian nun, 151. Customs of the
Nestorians, 157. The massacre
under Beder Khan Bey, 174
Nimroud, first view of, 3. Re-
visited, 5, 14. First discoveries
at, 16. Excavations undertaken
by the British Museum, 225.
The author's house at Nimroud,
227. Recommencement of exca-
vations, 229. Life at Nimroud,
258. General description of the
ruins, 328. Departure, 334. Last
look at the line of mounds,
341
Nineveh, dimensions of the city
of, 336. Site of, 337. Mystery
and dread attached to the mounds
of, XX.
Ninus, xvii.
Nisroch, the Assyrian god, 48
North-west palace, entrance to
the great hall of the, 53
Nun, a Nestorian, 151
Nur-Ullah Bey, of Hakkiari, his
persecutions, 144, 155, 156.
His mutesellim, 155
/^BELISK, a black marble,
^^ discovered, 244
Ormuzd, representation of, at Nim-
roud, 97
Ornamental bas-relief discovered,
99-101
INDEX.
383
PAI
TIA
pAINTED chambers at Nim-
■'' roud, 271
Palaces, architecture of the, 367-
369
Paradises, or parks, of the Assy-
rians and Persians, 94, 336
Pavement slabs, discovery of, with
inscriptions, 273
Persepolis, inscriptions at, deci-
phered, XXV.
Persian monarchs, head-dress of
the, loi
Phalanx, a, 361
Pottery, discovery of, at Nimroud,
275. At Kouyunjik, 346
Putros, Melek, the Nestorian
Chaldaean, 152
"P ABBAN, Hormuzd, convent
•'^ of, 172
Rabsaris, or chief eunuch, of the
Assyrians, 28
Rafts on the Tigris, 321, 323
Raola, valley of, 144. The house
of the Melek at, 144
Rassam, Mr., British vice-consul at
Mosul, 13, 61, 65
Rassam, Mr. Hormuzd, 36. His
kindness to the Nestorians, 129
Rawlinson, Sir H., his discoveries,
XXV. ^
Rich, Mr., his examination of the
ruins of ancient Assyria, xx.
Rock-tombs of Kurdistan, 171
Ross, Mr., 14 note
C AB^ANS, the, 149 note
*^ Sacrificial stone at Nhnroud,
97
Sand-storms, in Mesopotamia, 85
Saraoun, or Saraghoun, ancient
city of, 113
Sarcophagus, discovery of a, 253
Sardanapalus, discovery of 3ie
name of, at Nimroud, 104, 252.
Records of, xvii. Name of,
xxiii.
Scribes numbering the slain, 357
Sculptures, transport of the, loiS
Selamiyah, village of, 23, 235.
Winter at, 24
Semiramis, accounts of, xvii.
Sennacherib, discovery of the name
of, on baked bricks, 109. And
at Kouyunjik, 346. In his
chariot returning from battle,
358
Seyyid, a, 301
Shalmaneser, obelisk recording the
annals of the reign of, 247
Shammar Arabs, pasture-grounds
of the, 65. Encampment of, 67
Shems, Sheikh, sanctuary of, 191
Shields hung round walls, 355
Sieges, Assyrian, on bas-reliefs,
91, 235, 279, 360
Sinjar, Gebel, Yezidis of the, 180.
Massacres' in the, 180, 182.
Expedition of Tahyar Pasha to
the, 214. Trade of the, 223.
Lions of the, 294 note
Sitting figure in black basalt, 295
Slaves in the south of Turkey, loi
Slinger, a, 356
Sofiik, sheikh of the Shammar
Arabs, 67. His history, 69.
His harem and wives, 71. Mur-
dered, 78
Spandareh, visit to the Kurdish
village of, 118
Spearman, a, 356
Sphinxes, discovery of, 250
Storm in the desert, 75
'yABLES, Assyrian, 232
^ Tahar, Sheikh, 167
Tahlehl. of Arab women, 83
Tahyar Pasha, his pubUc entry into
Mosul, 83. His visit to the ex-
cavations, 106. His expedition
to the Sinjar, 215. His death,
265
Tel Afer, town of, 217
Tel Kef, village of, 173
Tent, an Assyrian, 339
Throne of the King, 103
Thunder-storm in Mesopotamia, §■
297
Tiara, or mitre, of the King, loi
384
INDEX,
TIG
Tigris, rafts on the, 321, 323
Tiyari mountains, visit to the, 1 11.
Houses of, 131. Beauty of the
country, 135. Massacre of the
Nestorians, 139. A Tiyari
bridge, 143. Roads of Tiyari,
162
Tkhoma, 145. Alarm of the in-
habitants, 145, 147. A Sunday
at, 149. Tkhoma Gowaia, 152.
Fate of Tkhoma, 174
Tombs, brick, 274, 289. Pottery
found in the, 275, 289
Tree, the sacred, 45
Trilingual inscriptions of Persia,
WASES, alabaster, found at
^ Nimroud, 241, 242. At
Kouyunjik, 346
Vizir, the, in the bas-reliefs, 41, 87
TyARRIORS, Assyrian, 27,
^^ 234, 277, 280, 284, 285,
286, 348, 356, 357, 360, 361
Weights, Assyrian, 89, 90
Whirlwinds in Mesopotamia, 85
Women, Arab, 66, 257. Yezidi,
194, 211. Captive, from a bas-
relief, 281. Seclusion of, in the
East, from the earliest periods,
339
ZEI
Writing of the Assyrians, xxiii.
VENOPHON, the pyramid
"^^ and ruins described by, 3
Xerxes, inscriptions on the padace
of, at Persepolis, xxv.
YAKOUB RAIS, 134, 135
"*• Yezidis, or devil-worship-
pers, 25. Visit to the, 115, 176.
History of the, 180. Persecu-
tions of the, 18 1. A festival,
187. Dances of the Yezidis,
188, 212. Then: religious cere-
monies, 190, 191, 209. Their
music, 191. Their doctrines,
195, 214. Their name, 198.
Their marriage ceremonies, 200.
Their funerals, 201. Their or-
ders of priesthood, 202. Their
language and books, 204, 214.
Their traditions, 205. Yezidi
women, 194, 211. Customs of
the Kaidi, 213
7 AB, river, view of the, 3. Vil-
^ lages in the valley of the,
162
Zaweetha, village of, 131, 132.
Visit to, 136
Zeinel Bey, at Asheetha, 133
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